1.1 Chapter Introduction
During the COVID-19 pandemic, lockdowns affected the whole world. Businesses were shuttered and often closed for good. Schools transitioned to online classes, and students who relied on school lunches struggled to get regular meals. Rising unemployment, restrictions on public transportation and other resources, home environments under major strain, millions of people getting sick (over 98 million in the United States, according to the Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), and over 1 million Americans dying added to the enormous pressures of the pandemic (CDC, 2024). In addition, Portland, Oregon, entered the national spotlight for two serious reasons. The first was the protests in the summer of 2020 over police violence in response to the death of George Floyd at the hands of police officer Derek Chauvin (figure 1.1.). Floyd’s death was another in a long line of Black men killed by white police officers. The second reason was a significant increase in gun violence that had begun during the pandemic. As a result, Portland was described as “flailing” (Cline, 2021), and politicians began calling for someone to get the city under control.
U.S. News reported, “Nationally, homicides increased by nearly 30% from 2019 to 2020, based on FBI data. However, in Portland, deadly violence—which has been exacerbated by the pandemic—is increasing at a faster rate than nearly all major cities, with an 83% increase in homicides in 2020” (Cline, 2021). Portland Police Bureau has attributed the gun violence and an increase in shootings to an explosion of gang activity (Arden, 2021). This heightened rate of gang activity and gun violence is a continuing area of significant concern for the city’s residents, businesses, and leaders.
How do we figure out what really causes crime rates to spike? Criminologists look at phenomena like the situation in Portland to figure out what exactly is happening, why it is happening, and what should be done to stop it. In this chapter, we will use this example to break down the basics of what you need to know about criminology.
Please be aware that this textbook includes discussions and descriptions of various topics related to crime, criminal behavior, violence, and the criminal justice system that may be distressing or difficult to digest. Such topics include, but are not limited to, physical and sexual abuse and sexual assault, domestic violence, homicide, substance abuse and addiction, exploitation, mental health issues, discrimination and inequality, and institutional misconduct and violence. The material presented is based on academic research, case studies, and real-world examples to provide a comprehensive understanding of criminology. If you find yourself in need of support while grappling with any of these subjects, here are some helpful national resources:
- National Domestic Violence Hotline: 800-799-7233 or thehotline.org
- Rape, Abuse & Incest National Network (RAINN): 800-656-4673 or rainn.org
- Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA): 800-662-4357 or samhsa.gov
- 988 Suicide & Crisis Lifeline: Call or text 988 or 988lifeline.org
- The Trevor Project (hotline specifically for the LGBTQIA+ population): Call 866-488-7386 or text 678-678 or thetrevorproject.org
Additionally, this textbook uses terms such as “criminal” and “offender” to discuss specific behaviors and legal classifications within the field of criminology. While these terms are commonly accepted in legal contexts, they can carry negative connotations and may oversimplify complex social issues. This subject will be discussed at various points throughout the book, but as you read, consider the broader implications of these labels and approach the subject with sensitivity and an understanding of the diverse factors influencing criminal behavior.
Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, students will be able to do the following:
- Define criminology and theory.
- Distinguish differences between crime, deviance, criminology, and criminal justice.
- Explain what makes a valid theory.
- Identify different ways to categorize criminological theories.
- Recognize and evaluate ways that society and culture impact law and definitions of crime.
- Understand and start to identify criminogenic factors.
Key Terms
- Bias: a tendency, inclination, or prejudice toward or against something or someone that is often considered unfair
- Correlated: a term describing variables that have a relationship or connection
- Crime: legal term describing the violation of a criminal law
- Criminal justice: the system that deals with crime and its consequences
- Criminogenic factors: something that increases the likelihood of crime occurring when it is present
- Criminology: the study of crime and why it happens
- Deviance: a sociological term describing behavior that is outside of accepted social norms
- Empirical validity: the degree to which research that is based on systematic observation, measurement, and verifiable experimentation shows what the theory says it should
- Explanatory power: the ability of a theory to explain the intended topic in a useful manner
- Hypothesis: a reasonable possible explanation of why we think a phenomenon is occurring based on an educated guess that can be tested
- Logical consistency: the idea that a theory must make sense and be reasonable from beginning to end
- Macro-level: in relation to theory, a focus on large scale issues or populations
- Micro-level: in relation to theory, a focus on individuals or small groups
- Operational definition: the way we define a concept in order to use, measure, or test it in research
- Paradigm: a framework of assumptions, concepts, values, and practices that shapes the types of questions we ask and how we answer them
- Parsimony: keeping a theory clear, concise, elegant, and simple
- Scope: something that is covered or addressed by a theory
- Spuriousness: occurs when two things appear to be correlated but are not because of another variable(s)
- Testable: the openness of a theory to testing and possible falsification
- Theory: a statement that proposes to describe and explain why facts or other social phenomenon are related to each other based on observed patterns
- Usefulness: the degree to which a theory has real-world application
- Variables: concepts, factors, or elements in a study
- Victimology: the focused study of victims and their experiences of victimization
Licenses and Attributions for Chapter Introduction
Open Content, Original
“Chapter Introduction” by Jessica René Peterson and Taryn VanderPyl is licensed under CC BY 4.0.
Open Content, Shared Previously
Figure 1.1. “George Floyd police brutality protests – Portland Oregon – Jul 22 – tedder – crowd during BLM speeches” by Tedder is licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0.
legal term describing the violation of a criminal law
the study of crime and why it happens
the system that deals with crime and its consequences
violence that is physical, sexual, emotional, or financial in nature and often patterned that takes place between people in a family setting; often used interchangeably with the term intimate partner violence, although domestic violence is not limited to intimate partners
a statement that proposes to describe and explain why facts or other social phenomenon are related to each other based on observed patterns
a sociological term describing behavior that is outside of accepted social norms
something that increases the likelihood of crime occurring when it is present