Throughout this chapter, you will be introduced to important key terms that will help deepen your understanding of middle childhood cognitive development:

• Bandwidth tax: the cognitive load or mental effort required to manage multiple tasks or information streams simultaneously. This concept is based on the idea that the human brain has limited processing capacity, and attempting to juggle too many tasks or pieces of information at once can lead to a reduced ability to focus, make decisions, and perform effectively.
• Concrete operational stage: a stage of cognitive development described by Jean Piaget, a prominent developmental psychologist. This stage typically occurs between the ages of 7 and 11 and is characterized by the development of logical thinking and the ability to perform mental operations on concrete objects or events.
• Emotional regulation: closely linked to cognitive development, which refers to the growth and maturation of a person’s thinking and reasoning abilities. As children develop cognitively, they also develop greater emotional regulation skills.
• Executive function: a set of cognitive processes that are responsible for controlling and regulating behavior, thoughts, and emotions. These processes are involved in planning, organizing, initiating and inhibiting actions, shifting attention, working memory, and self-monitoring.
• Neurodivergence: a concept that refers to the natural variation in neurological and cognitive functioning among individuals. It recognizes that people have different ways of processing information, perceiving the world, and communicating with others, and that these differences are not necessarily deficits or abnormalities.
• Zone of proximal development:a concept developed by the Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky. It refers to the difference between what a learner can do independently and what they can do with assistance from a more knowledgeable other. The ZPD is an important concept in education because it emphasizes the role of social interaction and collaboration in learning. It suggests that learners can benefit from working together with others who have more knowledge and experience, and that the learning process is enhanced when learners are challenged to go beyond their current level of ability.
• Sociocultural theory: a psychological and educational theory that emphasizes the role of social and cultural factors in shaping individual development and learning. According to sociocultural theory, human cognition and learning are deeply influenced by social interactions and cultural practices. Learning occurs through social interactions with more knowledgeable others, such as parents, teachers, and peers. It also emphasizes the importance of cultural tools, such as language, symbols, and technology, in shaping how people think and learn. Sociocultural theory has had a significant impact on education, particularly in the areas of language development and literacy.
• Inductive reasoning: a type of reasoning in which conclusions are drawn from specific observations or evidence, rather than from general principles or assumptions.
• Classification: the process of grouping items, data, or information into categories or classes based on their characteristics, properties, or attributes.
• Reversibility:an important concept in cognitive development related to a child’s ability to understand that things can be changed back to their original state. It is a key component of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development.
• Identity
• Seriation: a cognitive ability that refers to the process of arranging objects or concepts in a particular order or sequence. This ability is an important part of cognitive development and is often used as a measure of cognitive functioning in children.
• Conservation: the ability to understand that an object or quantity remains the same despite changes in its appearance, shape, or arrangement. This ability allows children to consider multiple factors and perspectives simultaneously and to understand that changes in appearance do not necessarily mean a change in quantity or identity.
• Transitivity:the ability to understand and logically deduce relationships between items in a series or set. The development of transitivity skills is closely linked to the development of abstract reasoning and problem-solving abilities.
• Social learning theory: a psychological theory that suggests that people learn through observation, imitation, and modeling of the behavior of others in social settings. This theory proposes that individuals acquire new behaviors and skills by observing and imitating others, and that the consequences of these behaviors (such as rewards and punishments) influence whether or not the behavior is repeated in the future.
• Learning disorder: a type of neurodevelopmental disorder that affects the way an individual processes information, learns new skills, and communicates with others. These disorders are characterized by difficulties in one or more areas of academic, social, or occupational functioning.