School becomes a very important component of children’s lives during middle and late childhood. Parents and the culture contribute to children’s experiences in school as indicated by the ecological systems model through their interaction with the school. This model helps us understand an individual by examining the contexts in which the person lives and the direct and indirect influences on that person’s life (Bronfenbrenner, 1979).

10.5.1 Factors that influence school experiences

While school has a large impact on a child’s life, it is also true that aspects of a child’s life such as family or caregivers also have a large influence on their school experience. Parents may unintentionally influence a child’s perception of their academic abilities based on stereotypes. For children attending school, especially outside of the home, parental involvement can have a significant impact on a child’s academic engagement. Furthermore, cultural factors may influence how children assimilate into the classroom environment.

10.5.1.1 Stereotypes

The stereotypes held by parents and teachers can influence children’s self-efficacy in various domains. For example, teachers who hold the view that girls are better at reading (Retelsdorf et al., 2015) or boys are better at math (Plante et al., 2013) often find that their students’ performance in these areas mirrors these stereotypes. This happens despite the children’s actual ability or the ability of children in the classrooms of teachers who do not hold such stereotypes. While not all children will internalize the views of others, those who do are more likely to show declines in their performance consistent with the stereotypes (Plante et al., 2013; Retelsdorf et al., 2015). Additionally, teachers’ stereotypes or biases can influence students of color. For example, Black students receive more out-of-school suspensions than white students (National Center for Education Statistics, 2019). It is important to recognize that we all have biases. By bringing awareness to what our biases might be, parents and teachers can work at examining and fighting these implicit biases and stereotypes.

10.5.1.2 Parental Involvement

Parental involvement can have a big impact on a child’s school experience. Teachers often complain that they have difficulty getting parents to participate in their child’s education and devise a variety of techniques to keep parents in touch with their student’s progress. For example, parents may be required to sign a behavior chart each evening to be returned to school or may be given information about the school’s events through websites and newsletters. There are considerations to take into account when looking at parental involvement. First, ask yourself if all parents who enter the school with concerns about their child will be received in the same way.

Teachers seek a particular type of involvement from particular types of parents (Horvat, 2004). Teachers are often most receptive to support, praise, and agreement coming from most similar parents (i.e., race, social class). Additionally, parents with higher income levels or a particular career have family capital that influences decisions and teacher-parent interactions. Conversely, parents who criticize the school or its policies are less likely to be given a voice, and parents who do not have the capital other parents have may find it more difficult to be effectively involved (Horvat, 2004). Just as teachers need to examine their implicit bias toward students, they must also closely examine their biases against parents. Schools may also need to examine their ability to communicate with parents about school policies in a variety of ways.

10.5.1.3 Student Perspectives

Imagine being a 3rd-grader for 1 day in public school. What would the typical daily routine include and how much of a say do you think you would have in it? Would you be expected to be ‘on task’? What parts of the day would you find difficult? Chances are, recess would be the highlight of your day.

A student’s typical day is often filled with constrictive and unnecessary rituals that decrease student motivation (McLaren, 1999). Cognitive development leads to increased goal-orientation during middle childhood. However, students are negotiating the time spent ‘on task’ working towards academic goals and time spent on their interests. The majority of the day requires a student to focus on a task or try to stay focused on a task. Additionally, students are often required to be passive, quiet, and compliant. Less time is spent in playful, energetic activities where a child is expressing themselves and socializing. Teachers sometimes reward students with playful, energetic, social opportunities. However, when students socialize during ‘on task’ time, they may risk losing important recess time that students need. Since students seem to have so much enthusiasm and energy for personal interests, what would happen if goal-oriented tasks and personal interests could overlap more often? Many educators feel concerned about the level of stress children experience in school. Some stress can be attributed to problems in friendships, and some can be a result of the emphasis on testing and grades (Tyre, 2006). So why do schools continue what are often unnecessary school day rituals? A look at cultural influences on education may provide some answers.

10.5.1.4 Cultural Influences

The cultural values, concepts, behaviors, and roles that students encounter in school play a huge part in their experience but are not part of the formal curriculum. These are part of the hidden curriculum but contain very powerful messages. The hidden curriculum includes ideas of patriotism, gender roles, the ranking of occupations and classes, competition, and other values. Cultural training begins early (Gracy, 2004). Kindergarten is an “academic boot camp” in which students are prepared for their future student roles. They learn to comply with an adult-imposed structure and they learn a routine that will become central to their future lives as students. A typical day is filled with structure, ritual, and routine that often allows for little creativity or direct, hands-on contact.

What do you think? Let’s examine a kindergarten class schedule taken from a website found by going to Google and typing in “kindergarten schedule”. You can find more of these on your own. Most look similar to the one seen in table 10.1.

Table 10.1. Kindergarten Class Schedule.

To what extent do you think that students are being prepared for their future student role? What are the pros and cons of such preparation? Look at the curriculum for kindergarten and the first few grades in your school district. Emphasizing math and reading in preschool and kindergarten classes is becoming more common. It is not without controversy, however. Some suggest that emphasis is warranted to help students learn math and reading skills that will be needed throughout school and in the world of work. This will also help school districts improve their accountability through test performance. Others argue that students are being taught only to focus on performance and test-taking. Students are experiencing the stress felt by teachers and school districts focused on test scores and taught that their worth comes from their test scores. How might you revise the schedule to combine the playful energetic social interests with their growing goal-oriented abilities to stay on task? How might this develop a genuine interest and appreciation of the process of learning?

10.5.2 Neurodivergence and the Classroom

When children don’t seem to be developing or learning in the typical pattern, they might be assessed for a disorder or disability. Neurodivergence is a term used to describe a spectrum of differences in cognitive functioning. While differences from what is considered typical development can create challenges, there are also strengths to neurodivergence. Labels related to functioning do little to support students, instead understanding potential challenges can better support a student along with an understanding of their individual strengths and needs. Neurodivergence may or may not be associated with mental illness or a learning disorder/disability. In this section, you’ll learn about the spectrum of disorders and how they may impact many areas of a child’s life.

A learning disorder is a classification of disorders in which a person has difficulty learning in a typical manner within one of several domains. Types of learning disorders include difficulties in reading (dyslexia), mathematics (dyscalculia), and writing (dysgraphia). These disorders are diagnosed with certain criteria. The term learning disability is a similar umbrella term used in school settings and legal documents to describe learning challenges.

Children with learning challenges are often identified in school because this is when their academic abilities are tested, compared, and measured. Using the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5), a qualified person such as a neuropsychiatrist, psychologist, or specialized therapist will make a diagnosis, identify causes, and make a treatment plan. The diagnosis of specific learning disorder was added to the DSM-5 in 2013. The DSM-5 does not require that a single domain of difficulty be identified, like reading, mathematics, or written expression. Instead, it is a single diagnosis that describes a collection of potential learning challenges that include detailed specifications for the areas of reading, mathematics, and writing. Assessment must indicate below average in at least one of these areas, and the symptoms may also interfere with daily life or work. In addition, the learning difficulties cannot be attributed to other sensory, motor, developmental, or neurological disorders. The next section will discuss specific learning disorders as diagnosed by the DSM-5.

10.5.2.1 Learning Disorders or Disabilities

Dyslexia, sometimes called “reading disorder,” is the most common learning disorder. Of all students with specific learning disorders, 70–80 percent have deficits in reading (Shaywitz et al., 2021). Dyslexia is just one of several types of reading disorders. A reading disorder can affect any part of the reading process, including word recognition, word decoding, reading speed, prosody (oral reading with expression), and reading comprehension.

Dyscalculia is a form of math-related learning disorder that involves difficulties with learning math-related concepts such as quantity, place value, and time. Challenges may also include memorizing math-related facts, organizing numbers, and understanding how problems are organized on the page.

The term dysgraphia is often used as an overarching term for all learning disorders of written expression. Challenges related to dysgraphia can include grammatical and punctuation use within sentences, paragraph organization, spelling and handwriting.

Dyspraxia is a neurodevelopmental disorder impacting movement and coordination between the brain and muscles. Dyspraxia is also referred to as developmental coordination disorder (DCD). Students with dyspraxia do not have the motor skills expected based on their age. Acquired dyspraxia can occur as a result of an illness or more commonly as a result of a brain injury. Dyspraxia may also be referred to as Childhood Apraxia of Speech (CAS), developmental verbal dyspraxia or speech apraxia. There are a few types of dyspraxia and associated challenges:

• Motor dyspraxia- creates challenges for students when writing, getting dressed, manipulating buttons or zippers, or doing activities like skipping and running.
• Verbal dyspraxia- creates challenges in fluency and clarity of speech.
• Oral dyspraxia- creates challenges with movements of the mouth and tongue and may impact eating and speech.

Auditory processing disorder (APD) is a sensory processing disorder that affects a person’s ability to interpret sounds, especially speech. Sensory processing disorders affect how your brain processes information from the environment. Challenges related to APD include difficulty with verbal directions, inability to distinguish sounds in noisy environments, or following conversations with peers.

Visual processing disorder (VPD) is a sensory processing disorder that affects a person’s ability to interpret visual information. Challenges related to VPD include difficulty telling the difference between shapes and symbols, focusing or finding a specific piece of information on a page, or reading.

10.5.2.2 Speech and Language Disorders

In education, speech and language disorders can impact how students understand or work with information, potentially creating additional learning challenges without beneficial support. Several disorders that affect speech and language function specifically. The human brain has a few areas that are specific to language processing and production. When these areas are damaged or injured, capabilities for speaking or understanding can be lost, which is a disorder known as aphasia. These areas must function together for a person to develop, use, and understand language.

An articulation disorder refers to the inability to correctly produce speech sounds because of imprecise placement, timing, pressure, speed, or flow of movement of the lips, tongue, or throat (NIDCD, 2016). Sounds can be substituted, left off, added or changed. These errors may make it hard for people to understand the speaker. They can range from problems with specific sounds, such as lisping, to more severe challenges such as the ability to recognize, organize, or use particular sounds or words. Most children have problems pronouncing words early on while their speech is developing. However, by age 3, at least half of what a child says should be understood by a stranger. By age 5, a child’s speech should be mostly intelligible. Parents should seek help if by age 6 the child is still having trouble producing certain sounds. It should be noted that accents are not articulation disorders (Medline Plus, 2016a).

Fluency disorders affect the rate of speech. Speech may be labored and slow, or too fast for listeners to follow. The most common fluency disorder is stuttering. Stuttering is a speech disorder in which sounds, syllables, or words are repeated or last longer than normal. These problems cause a break in the flow of speech, which is called dysfluency (Medline Plus, 2016b). About five percent of children ages 2–5 will develop some stuttering that may last from several weeks to several years (Medline Plus, 2016c). Approximately 75 percent of children recover from stuttering. For the remaining 25 percent, stuttering can persist as a lifelong communication disorder (NIDCD, 2016). This is called developmental stuttering and is the most common form of stuttering. Brain injury and, in very rare instances, emotional trauma may also trigger developing stuttering problems. In most cases of developmental stuttering, other family members share the same communication disorder. Disorders of the voice involve problems with pitch, loudness, and quality of the voice (American Speech-Language and Hearing Association, 2016). It only becomes a disorder when problems with the voice make the child unintelligible. In children, voice disorders are significantly more prevalent in males than in females. Between 1.4–six percent of children experience problems with the quality of their voice. Causes can be due to structural abnormalities in the vocal cords and/or larynx, functional factors, such as vocal fatigue from overuse, and in rarer cases psychological factors, such as chronic stress and anxiety.

10.5.3 Inclusive educational practices

Since the 1970s political and social attitudes have moved increasingly toward including people with disabilities in a wide variety of activities. In the United States, the shift is illustrated clearly in federal legislation. Three major laws were passed that guaranteed the rights of persons with disabilities, and of children and students with disabilities in particular. The third law has had the biggest impact on education.

10.5.3.1 The Rehabilitation Act of 1973

The Rehabilitation Act (1973) required that individuals with disabilities be accommodated in any program or activity that receives federal funding (PL 93-112, 1973). Although this law was not intended specifically for education, in practice it has protected students’ rights in the classroom as well in some extracurricular activities for older students, and in some childcare or after-school care programs for younger students. Under the Act, if a program receives federal funding of any kind, it is not allowed to exclude children or youths with disabilities and must find reasonable ways to accommodate the individuals’ disabilities. Section 504 of the Rehabilitation act is what is referred to when a student receives accommodations for equal access to a curriculum. These accommodations are documented in a 504 plan.

10.5.3.2 Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990

The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) prevents discrimination based on disability. Although the ADA also applies to all people and not just to students, its provisions are more specific and stronger than those of the Rehabilitation Act. In particular, the ADA extends to all employment and jobs, not just those organizations receiving federal funding. It also specifically requires accommodations to be made in public facilities like buses, restrooms, and telephones. The ADA is responsible for accessibility improvements in schools, like wheelchair-accessible doors, ramps, and restrooms.

10.5.3.3 Individuals with Disabilities Education Act

Passed in 1975, the Individuals with Disabilities Act (IDEA) applies specifically to accessibility in education. It has been amended several times since, including most recently in 2004 (PL 108–446, 2004). In its current form, the law guarantees five core rights to education for anyone with a disability from birth to age 21. The first two rights influence schooling in general, but the last three affect the work of classroom teachers rather directly:

• Free, appropriate education: An individual or an individual’s family should not have to pay for education simply because the individual has a disability, and the educational program should be truly educational (i.e., not merely caretaking or babysitting).
• Due process: In case of disagreements between an individual with a disability and the schools or other professionals, there must be procedures for resolving the disagreements that are fair and accessible to all parties, including the individual or their representative.
• Fair evaluation of performance despite disability: Tests or other evaluations should not assume test-taking skills that a person with a disability cannot reasonably be expected to have, such as holding a pencil, hearing or seeing questions, working quickly, or understanding and speaking orally. Evaluation procedures should be modified to allow for these differences. This provision of the law applies both to evaluations made by teachers and to school-wide or state-wide assessments.
• Education in the “least restrictive environment”: Education for someone with a disability should provide as many educational opportunities and options for the person as possible, both in the short and long term. In practice, this requirement has meant including students in regular classrooms and school activities as much as possible.
• An Individualized Educational Plan (IEP): Given that every disability is unique, instructional planning for a person with a disability should be unique or individualized as well. In practice, this provision has led to classroom teachers planning individualized programs jointly with other professionals like reading specialists, psychologists, or medical personnel as part of a team.

Academic opportunities for children to access and develop cognitive skills is important to a child’s overall development. The Bioecological Model (Bronfenbrenner, 1979) illustrates the relationship between parents, schools, and policy systems such as the acts mentioned above, interacting to influence a child’s development. Quality education supports development by fostering cognitive processes and overall health and wellness.