Humans have always strived to understand the world around them. The information encompassed within the human development field is so vast that researchers have found ways to organize information to explain their ideas, observations, and findings. This is where theories come in. They help us answer questions and make sense of the world. Theories are developed once researchers gather ample data and facts from observations or research. Patterns and outcomes that are similar and that occur over and over again are analyzed and form the basis of theoretical frameworks (Dwyer, 2020). Theories in child development help us understand and even predict behavior and when it will emerge. Let’s take a closer look at what a theory is.

2.2.1 What Is a Theory?

A theory is an explanation about behaviors or actions based on the collection of research data or evidence. Theories are formulated using a hypothesis (or an educated guess) about why something is happening. Researchers “test” the theory and gather evidence that supports their guesses or refutes it. If you have ever wondered why your sister, or brother are so very different from you despite having the same parents, there are theories to help make sense of it. Theories are important tools to guide our understanding and they are also important for researchers who want to improve existing theories or develop new ones.

A theory tends to be established in the scientific community once scholars agree on the meanings of concepts. Many concepts used in scientific theories have fairly stable properties which means that once established, those concepts do not change much over time. This is very important because a theory about adolescence, for example, would not make sense if the meaning of adolescence changes every time we use this word. The age and behaviors related to adolescence have remained fairly consistent over time and therefore allows theories to be used decades after they have been established.

It is important to note that theories, much like fashion trends, can become outdated. Society continually changes and researchers must review and evaluate theories in order to keep up with scientific advancements and patterns of human behavior. One example of this would be John Locke’s 17th century theory around “tabula rasa”. He believed that children are born with minds that are blank slates which rely solely on experience, or nurture, to develop socially and morally (Locke, 1689). Modern research informs us that we inherit genetic information and qualities (nature) that influence our development and we are also influenced by our environment (nurture).

By updating the knowledge around how children’s brains are developed from birth, researchers can form better theories to explain human development.

2.2.2 How Research and Theory Work

Human development is a field of study that encompasses natural, social, and human sciences. Science is important because it helps us understand how the world (or people) work. Fundamentally, all sciences are concerned with ideas, data, and the relationships between them. Theory is based on ideas, and research is based on data. Science can only advance as much as its theories and research studies are productive and mutually reinforcing. If research produces consistent and verifiable results, or empirical evidence, the data might lead to the development of a new theory or support an existing theory.

Empirical research can be categorized into two types of methods, qualitative or quantitative. Each method provides us with different ways to understand information. Qualitative research involves collecting non-numeric data in order to understand or explain big concepts or human perspectives (Bouchrika, 2023). Some examples of qualitative research include observations, case studies, or interviews. This type of research helps us answer “why” and “how” questions. Quantitative research involves measuring phenomena by collecting numerical data (Bouchrika, 2023). Some examples of quantitative research include surveys, polls, or questionnaires which aim to gather statistical information that can be analyzed objectively. This type of research helps us answer questions like “what” and “how much”.

Both methods are important in providing us with information and together can give us a broader or more well rounded understanding about a particular topic, experience, or behavior. Theories are important tools to use during the research process and can be applied during different stages of quantitative or qualitative research (Stewart & Klein, 2016). For example, theories can help researchers define their research questions, provide rationale for their studies, and provide a framework for analyzing and understanding data (Stewart & Klein, 2016).

2.2.3 How Theories Change Over Time

We have learned so far that theories offer explanations about how something works and that there is a lot of research involved in testing and supporting theories. However, science is a continual process and can result in changes or shifts in theories. Theories can change for a variety of reasons and the way that we use theories can also change. Change can be influenced by new data or evidence that contradicts previous assumptions or theoretical frameworks. Similarly, advances in technology or methodology that allow for more accurate or precise measurements influence how theories change or how they are used.

Below are some common reasons why theories can change over time:

Paradigm shifts: Sometimes a new way of thinking about a phenomenon emerges that alters the way scientists approach the subject. This can be the result of a major discovery or breakthrough, or a new theoretical framework that provides a more comprehensive or compelling explanation for existing data. For example, Isaac Newton’s theory of physics proposed that time and space are the same everywhere, for all observers. Albert Einstein later developed his theory of relativity which proposed that time and space are relative to the observer’s perspective (Westacott, 2019). This shift in physics was profound and increased our understanding on how the universe works.

Modification of assumptions: As new data or evidence emerges, scientists may need to modify their underlying assumptions about the nature of the phenomenon they are studying. For example, in the early days of astronomy, it was assumed that the Earth was at the center of the universe, but this idea was gradually replaced with the heliocentric model, which acknowledges that Earth and planets revolve around the sun.

Incorporation of new data: As new data becomes available, scientists may need to revise their theories to account for it. This can involve adding new concepts or mechanisms to the theory, or adjusting existing parameters to fit the new data.

Refinement of methodology:Advances in technology and methodology can also lead to changes in theories over time. For example, the development of the electron microscope allowed scientists to see structures at the cellular and molecular level that were previously invisible, leading to new insights into the workings of living systems.

Evolution of scientific consensus: As new data and ideas are debated and evaluated, a consensus can emerge within the scientific community about the best explanation for a given phenomenon. This consensus can evolve over time as new evidence and arguments are presented, and can lead to changes in the dominant theories or frameworks within a field.

Overall, theories change over time as our understanding of the world evolves and new discoveries are made. Science is a repetitive process, and theories are continually refined and updated as new data and insights emerge.

2.2.4 Social Constructions in Theory and Research

As mentioned in Chapter 1, social constructions refer to ideas or concepts created by society. These ideas are not biological or necessarily determined through genetics or specific factors but rather what is happening with society at a certain time. Many of the aspects of the world that we take for granted as inherently natural are actually created and defined by social processes and context. Some examples include money, language, gender, race, and even reality itself. Money on its own,

Social constructions are so important, there is even a theory to describe them, known as social constructionism theory.

2.2.4.1 Culture and Social Constructions

Under construction

2.2.4.2 The Social Construction of Difference

Under construction

2.2.5 Bias in Research and Theory

Theory in the human development field has been crucial in helping us understand how people grow and change over their lifespan. It is important to note that developmental theories have faced criticisms for their lack of attention to equity and inclusion issues, especially in the early stages. Some of the issues with equity and inclusion in human development theory include:

Universalism: The early formulations of human development theory assumed that everyone had the same needs and aspirations, which were to be met through economic growth and the provision of basic services. However, this approach ignores the fact that different groups may have different needs and aspirations based on their social, cultural, and economic backgrounds.

Individualism: Human development theory has traditionally focused on the individual as the unit of analysis, which can lead to neglect of the social and structural factors that shape people’s lives. This approach overlooks the impact of discrimination, inequality, and marginalization on people’s opportunities and choices.

Eurocentrism: The origins of human development theory lie in Western academic traditions and values, which can lead to a biased and narrow understanding of human development. This approach can neglect the diverse cultural and historical contexts in which development takes place and the different perspectives of non-Western societies.

Inadequate participation: The early formulations of human development theory did not emphasize the participation of marginalized and excluded groups in the development process. This approach can lead to the neglect of their perspectives and priorities and limit their agency in shaping their own lives.

Sexism: Historically, human development theory was developed by men and was often focused on the experiences and needs of men, with little attention given to the specific experiences and needs of women.

Gender-blindness: In the early formulations of human development theory, gender was often ignored as a category of analysis. This meant that women’s experiences and needs were not taken into account, and development policies and programs were often designed with men in mind.

Stereotyping: When women were acknowledged in human development theory, they were often portrayed in stereotypical roles as caregivers, mothers, or wives. This portrayal reinforced gendered stereotypes and ignored the diversity of women’s experiences and roles.

Invisibility of unpaid care work: Women’s unpaid care work, which includes activities such as childcare, cooking, cleaning, and other household tasks, was often invisible in human development theory. This invisibility meant that women’s contributions to the economy and society were undervalued and overlooked.

Limited agency: Women were often portrayed as passive recipients of development policies and programs, rather than active agents in shaping their own lives. This approach ignored women’s agency and ability to create change in their own communities.

Classism: Classism in research refers to bias or discrimination against individuals based on their socioeconomic status. Classism can manifest in research in several ways, including exclusion of lower-income participants, failure to account for socioeconomic factors, limited access to research funding, limited diversity in research teams and use of classist language.

Ableism: Ableism in research refers to the exclusion, marginalization, or discrimination of individuals with disabilities in research studies. Ableism in research can manifest in several ways, including exclusion of individuals with disabilities from research studies, stereotyping of individuals with disabilities, lack of accessibility in research studies, and including individuals with disabilities in research studies solely to meet diversity quotas, rather than to actively engage them in the research process.