Long before we are born, there are a variety of factors that will influence our development. As seen in Chapter 2, there are many theories to explain how these factors contribute to our growth. Our biological parents and their biological families before them directly influence our genetic health upon conception. We know through medical science that diet or toxins cause changes with DNA. The field of epigenetics (the study of how our behaviors and environment can change the way our genes work) builds on this by examining the way that stressors like abuse or trauma are imprinted in DNA and passed down familial lines. In other words, our ancestors’ past experiences can leave lasting marks that get passed to us.

Did you know that mitochondrial DNA, the energy producing structure in our cells, is passed down from our mothers (figure 3.1)? Scientists note that mitochondrial DNA changes very little from generation to generation. Because of this, they can trace back our ancestors through the maternal line for thousands of years. This is important when we think about development because mitochondria are responsible for generating 90 percent of the energy we need to function. Scientists once believed that our DNA make-up was fixed throughout our lives, but as we previously noted, we now understand that life events and environmental stressors can impact our DNA. For example, mutations within mitochondrial DNA may contribute to factors in aging and certain diseases (Srivastava, 2017).

In this chapter, we will be looking at the biological and environmental factors that influence pregnant mothers and their developing babies. For the purposes of this textbook, the terms “pregnant mother,” “pregnant person,” “pregnant people,” or other similar descriptors are used interchangeably to describe any person with a uterus who experiences pregnancy. The term “transgender men” will be used when addressing specific issues related to this group.

Learning Objectives

After reading this chapter, you will be able to do the following:

1. Identify the biological, social, and environmental factors influencing conception and pregnancy.
2. Identify the stages of prenatal development.
3. Analyze the relationship between access to services and life outcomes.
4. Compare and contrast the cultural and social influences on pregnancy and prenatal care and how they result in diverse pregnancy experiences.

Key Terms

Throughout this chapter, you will be introduced to important key terms that will help deepen your understanding of human development.

• Advanced maternal age: a term used to describe older expecting mothers, generally 35 years of age or older
• Biological sex: the biological differences between males and females, such as differences in reproductive organs, hormones, and chromosomes; not the same thing as gender
• Chemoattractant: a chemical signal that attracts cells or organisms to its source. Chemoattractants can be produced by cells or tissues in the body, and they can be found in the external environment
• Chromosomes: the strands of proteins and genetic material, made up of DNA, that live within our cells
• Chromosomal abnormality: occurs when a child inherits too many or two few chromosomes
• Cisgender: a term used to describe people whose gender identity matches the sex they were assigned at birth
• Classism: prejudice or discrimination based on social class or economic status, including factors such as wealth, income, education, and occupation
• Differential susceptibility: the degree to which a person is sensitive to negative environmental influences, such as adverse childhood experiences, or resilient and able to cope with such experiences
• Dominant gene: a gene that expresses itself in the phenotype even when paired with a different version of the gene
• Epigenetics: the study of how our behaviors and environment can change the way our genes work
• Gender: is a social construct based on biological sex that determines gender roles, behaviors, and expectations associated with being male or female
• Genes: the basic building blocks of heredity, which are made up of DNA
• Genotype: the total number of genes we inherit from our parents
• Geriatric pregnancy: an outdated term that refers to a pregnancy in which the mother is 35 years of age or older. The term is used because there are certain increased risks associated with pregnancy at this age
• Heterozygous genotype: when a person receives a different version of a gene from each parent
• Homozygous genotype: when a person receives the same version of a gene from each parent
• Implicit bias: the unconscious beliefs and attitudes that influence our judgments and actions
• Mitosis: the process by which a cell’s nucleus makes an exact copy of all the chromosomes and splits into two new cells
• Meiosis: the process by which gametes (sperm and egg cells) are formed
• Nature: the biological, genetic, and hereditary factors that are passed on to us from our parents and ancestors
• Nurture: the environmental and social factors that influence development
• Phenotype: the observable traits or characteristics of an organism that are expressed in our development
• Plasticity: the ability of an organism or system to adapt to changes in its environment or experiences
• Polygenic: a trait or characteristic that is influenced by multiple genes, rather than being controlled by a single gene
• Racism: is a system of disadvantage based on race or perceived race
• Recessive gene: a type of gene that is only expressed or observed in an individual’s phenotype when two copies of the gene are present, one inherited from each parent
• Social determinants of health: the conditions in the places where people live, learn, work, and play that affect a wide range of health risks and outcomes
• Teratogens: environmental factors that can contribute to birth defects
• Transgender: a term used to describe people whose gender identity differs from the sex they were assigned at birth

Licenses and Attributions for Chapter Overview and Learning Objectives

“Chapter Overview and Learning Objectives” by Christina Belli is licensed under CC BY 4.0.

Figure 3.1. Drawing by unknown artist is included under fair use.