Chapter 6: Sociology of Physical Activity

By Laura Ellingson-Sayen, PhD

Learning Objectives

• Demonstrate the ability to identify and analyze various sociocultural and socioeconomic barriers that influence individuals’ participation in physical activity.

• Utilize the Social-Ecological Model (SEM) to evaluate and address the multiple layers of influence on physical activity behaviors.

• Consider how sociological concepts, such as socialization, social stratification, and social structures, affect participation in physical activity and sports.

Chapter Contents

As a student in Exercise Science, you have likely had many positive experiences related to physical activity and are excited by the opportunity to share those experiences with others as a part of your career. It is important to remember, however, that our personal experiences are not universal and that many individuals face barriers to being physically active that are largely out of their control. For example, the sociocultural values (i.e. beliefs, traditions and habits that influence everyday behavior) of the community in which someone was raised, a person’s socioeconomic status, their gender identity, their racial and ethnic background, and the resources available in a person’s neighborhood may make them more or less likely to participate in a sport, to pursue rehabilitation after a heart attack or a knee injury, or to meet physical activity recommendations. Understanding the multitude of factors that influence whether or not someone pursues a particular physical activity is important as we consider working with members of the community in a professional capacity going forward.

Social-Ecological Model

The social ecological model (SEM) offers a comprehensive framework for understanding the multiple layers of influence on an individual’s health behaviors, including those related to being active. This model categorizes influences into five main levels:

• Intrapersonal (individual)
• Interpersonal (social)
• Organizational
• Community
• Policy

Each level interconnects to influence an individual’s behaviors through a variety of channels. At the intrapersonal level, an individual’s personal beliefs, knowledge, and skills directly affect their motivation and ability to engage in physical activity. For example, a person’s perception of their own health, or their self-efficacy in performing a certain sport, can strongly influence their participation levels. This level is often what we think of when we try to understand why a person does or does not engage in a physical activity-related behavior.

Expanding from the individual to broader societal factors, the SEM examines how social support (interpersonal), organizational structures (e.g. schools, workplace environments), community systems (e.g. neighborhoods, norms), and public policies (e.g. laws, regulations, etc.) create environments that either support or act as barriers to physical activity. For example, if we think about participation in rehabilitation after an injury, the interpersonal support from family and friends can provide motivation and practical assistance that is critical for recovery. Organizational aspects, such as the availability of specialized rehab facilities and programs within a community, play a critical role in determining how, when, and even if individuals can access necessary rehabilitation services. Moreover, community norms and policies can impact a person’s daily activity levels. For example, neighborhood design that includes bike lanes and parks promotes active commuting and outdoor activities. Therefore, SEM helps in understanding that an individual’s activity level is not merely a result of personal choice but is also significantly shaped by complex interconnections among various environmental, societal, and cultural factors.

Sociology of Physical Activity as a Subdiscipline

The subdiscipline of sociology of physical activity has historically focused primarily on sport. For example, until relatively recently, African Americans did not regularly compete at high levels in swimming because of racist practices surrounding segregation and public pools during the 20^th century. More recently, there is increasing attention being paid to how sociological principles like socialization – the process by which individuals learn and internalize the values, beliefs, and norms of their society, social stratification – the hierarchical arrangement of social groups based on their control over basic resources, and social structures- institutions like family, religion, education, and government, which provide a framework for individual actions influence participation in physical activity. For example, again we might consider racial disparities in swimming, but from the perspective of health and safety. The CDC reports that black children ages 10-14 years drown at rates 7.6 times higher than white children. This is, of course, due to segregation during the past century, as noted above, but it’s also a result of more current inequalities in socio-economic status including access to resources like pools and lessons.

In the field of exercise science, the sociology of physical activity serves three primary objectives: 1) to examine external factors that influence participation in physical activity, 2) to identify and evaluate patterns of consistency and change over time, and 3) to critically examine physical activity programs with a goal of promoting greater equality and human well-being.

The initial goal involves thoroughly examining physical activity at a deeper level and being skeptical of commonly held beliefs regarding why a person may or may not participate. For instance, while sports and exercise might seem like universally accessible personal choices, a deeper investigation shows that our decisions regarding physical activity are often shaped by social factors that are outside our control. For example, in the United States, few girls play football or wrestle. Commonly held beliefs might suggest that girls just don’t enjoy these sports or that they aren’t physically capable of playing. However, exercise scientists with training in sociology understand the sociocultural factors that influence trends in participation for girls in these and other sporting activities.

The second goal examines both consistent patterns and emerging trends in physical activity participation. For instance, examining the World Cup as a case study, sociological studies show that the event often mirrors the soccer dominance of more developed nations. Although the original vision of the World Cup was to foster a global celebration of soccer, bridging cultural divides, the reality often highlights wealthier countries showcasing their dominance in a global arena. However, changes are evident over time. The tournament has seen increased participation from a wider array of countries, inclusion of female referees in men’s games, a rise in the number of female teams, and a growing emphasis on sustainable event management. For sociologists, the focus is not necessarily on critiquing these developments but on recognizing both the transformative movements and the elements of continuity in how societies engage with physical activities like these major sporting events.

The third goal of the sociology of physical activity is to critically assess physical activity programs in order to identify issues and suggest improvements to promote equality and human well-being. Sociologists not only study social interactions but also critique them, evaluating their impact on overall human well-being and fair social relations, such as those among different races and ethnic groups, genders, and levels of socioeconomic status. Taking the example of major marathons, such as the Boston or New York City Marathon, sociologists have critiqued these events as favoring participants from more advantaged backgrounds who can afford high entry fees and travel costs. Moreover, these marathons often require significant city resources for a single event, which could be used in other ways to benefit the community year-round. Some argue that these events boost local engagement in running and fitness; however, the evidence supporting such long-term benefits is mixed. For exercise scientists adopting a sociological viewpoint, the limited community benefits from such large-scale events suggest the need for restructuring them to provide greater advantages to a broader section of society, not just those who participate directly or benefit financially from the event.

Knowledge in the Sociology of Physical Activity

Sociologists studying physical activity explore how human movement is influenced by power dynamics and dominant cultural beliefs about behavior and morality. Recognizing these power relationships can reveal how access to and control over physical activity are distributed, often reflecting broader societal inequalities. For instance, gender norms can subtly dictate who participates in certain sports or fitness activities, like the expectation that in gym settings women tend to use cardio rooms while men work out more often in weightlifting areas.

Power dynamics are also evident in which individuals find themselves in leadership roles and/or who have influence in the world of sports and physical fitness. For example, disparities in leadership roles within sports organizations can reflect broader societal biases, such as fewer coaching and administrative opportunities for African American players compared to their white counterparts in leagues like the NFL. These power structures extend beyond participation to also affect how sports are portrayed in media, often reinforcing existing social hierarchies and norms.

Understanding these dynamics is crucial for exercise scientists aiming to promote equitable and meaningful engagement in physical activities across all segments of society. By examining how societal power affects access and participation, they can better advocate for and implement changes that support inclusivity and fairness in sports and physical activities. In the final section of this chapter, you’ll get a brief overview of knowledge in three critical areas of sociology – how socioeconomic status, race/ethnicity, and gender influence participation in physical activity and sport.

Socioeconomic Status and Physical Activity

Socioeconomic status, which includes factors like wealth, education, and occupational prestige, significantly influences access to power and opportunities. For example, corporate executives enjoy many advantages over lower-wage positions like custodians, from affording luxurious lifestyles and elite education for their children to making impactful corporate decisions. In contrast, custodians may face financial strains and have limited influence within the same company.

The widening income gap in the United States highlights increasing socioeconomic disparities. Reports have shown that the richest Americans have seen their incomes skyrocket, while the poorest have experienced minimal growth. This growing economic divide impacts various life aspects, including education, health, and access to sport and recreational activities. For instance, while wealthier individuals can participate in exclusive sports like golf or tennis, those with lower incomes are more likely to engage in accessible team sports like basketball or soccer. This division is not just a reflection of personal choice but also of economic barriers that restrict participation in activities requiring significant financial investment.

Leadership roles in elite sports and recreational activities are predominantly occupied by those with considerable wealth. Economic barriers often prevent those from lower socioeconomic backgrounds from reaching influential positions within these fields. Furthermore, the cultural portrayal of sports and physical activities often reinforces socioeconomic status. For example, participation in expensive sports and having a muscular body serve as indicators of social status, embedding societal values that associate wealth with success and desirability. In summary, socioeconomic status shapes not only individual opportunities but also broader societal structures and cultural norms, perpetuating cycles of inequality within sports and physical activities.

Gender and Physical Activity

Just as a reminder, gender differs from biological sex. While sex involves physiological characteristics (e.g., male or female), gender is about societal norms dictating behavior. With that, it is important to remember that genders are socially constructed, not inherited but learned through social interactions.

In the U.S., men generally hold more power in the gender hierarchy than women, but this varies by race, social class, and sexual orientation. For example, white middle-class women often have more power than non-white working-class men, and both groups usually have more power than transgender individuals. Despite progress in the 20th century, significant gender inequalities persist, especially in physical activities, where beliefs about appropriate participation still exist.

Since Title IX was passed in 1972, mandating equal opportunities for women in education and sports, girls’ and women’s participation in sports has dramatically increased. The number of women on collegiate teams rose from fewer than 32,000 before Title IX to over 222,000 in 2020. High school girls’ participation has grown by more than 1000%. Title IX has increased opportunities for both girls and boys.

However, gender norms still influence which activities individuals engage in. Sports in the U.S. often affirm masculinity, emphasizing toughness and competitiveness. While many women possess these qualities, they are often still viewed as masculine traits. Women typically participate in higher numbers in socially appropriate sports with less body contact, emphasizing aesthetics and less strength development. For example, more women are found in gymnastics and volleyball, while more men participate in football and powerlifting.

Gender inequities extend to leadership roles in sports. While opportunities for women in coaching, sportscasting, and officiating have increased, they remain more limited than for men. The percentage of female coaches for women’s teams has actually declined from 90% in 1972 to 43% in 2014. Female representation in administrative positions has also dropped sharply. Globally, women are underrepresented in international sports federations, making up only 6% of presidents and 12% of vice presidents. These structural inequalities limit women’s leadership opportunities in sports.

In summary, although female participation in physical activities has increased, gender norms and inequalities remain deeply rooted. Addressing these issues requires challenging societal norms, increasing support for women’s sports, and promoting gender equality in all aspects of physical activity and leadership.

Race/Ethnicity and Physical Activity

Race is a social construct based on observable physical characteristics like skin color and facial features. It is not a natural or biological category but a social condition that can change over time. Ethnicity, on the other hand, refers to cultural heritage, with ethnic groups sharing traditions such as language and religion. Sometimes, ethnicity overlaps with race, as seen with African Americans who have diverse cultural traditions from Africa, the Caribbean, and Europe. Historically and today, racial and ethnic minorities have had less civic and legal power than racial majorities, often facing inequalities perpetuated by societal structures. White European dominance has led to both subtle and overt inequalities, such as the Jim Crow laws. These disparities are visible in various settings including sports, exemplified by Jackie Robinson breaking the color line in Major League Baseball.

In elite sports, racial and ethnic groups are often disproportionately represented. For example, African Americans have high participation rates in high profile professional sports like the NFL and the NBA due to historical and social structures, limited public contribution opportunities, and media narratives portraying sports as a way out for minorities. However, research often overlooks the low participation rates of African Americans in many sports requiring expensive equipment and private coaching like tennis, golf, and swimming, due to a lack of access to facilities and resources. Success stories of athletes like Tiger Woods and Serena Williams challenge these trends and raise questions about access and identity. In higher education, equitable access is expected, but NCAA Division I shows disproportionate representation by race and gender. African American males make up a significant portion of athletes but hold fewer leadership roles, such as athletic directors and head coaches, compared to their white counterparts.

Recreational activities and exercise programs also show racial disparities. Activities requiring expensive equipment and facilities, like skiing and swimming, see less participation from lower-income families, often racial and ethnic minorities. This trend is seen in professional sports as well, with African Americans overrepresented in basketball and football but underrepresented in baseball and soccer. Latinos and Asians also face representation issues in various sports.

Leadership roles in sports do not reflect the racial makeup of athletes. African Americans are underrepresented as coaches in sports with high African American participation. Stereotypes about intellectual capabilities and “old boy networks” contribute to this disparity. Networking among predominantly white administrators often excludes minorities, limiting their leadership opportunities.

In summary, racial and ethnic inequalities are deeply embedded in sports and society. Addressing these issues requires understanding the historical context, recognizing social barriers, and promoting equitable opportunities in both participation and leadership. Exercise and sport sociologists play important roles in advocating for change and ensuring inclusive physical activity environments.