3 Educational Philosophies

Foundations of Educational Philosophy

James Baldwin critically reflects on the purpose of education in his 1963 A Talk to Teachers:

“It would seem to me that when a child is born, if I’m the child’s parent, it is my obligation and my high duty to civilize that child. Man is a social animal. He cannot exist without a society. A society, in turn, depends on certain things which everyone within that society takes for granted. Now the crucial paradox which confronts us here is that the whole process of education occurs within a social framework and is designed to perpetuate the aims of society. Thus, for example, the boys and girls who were born during the era of the Third Reich, when educated to the purposes of the Third Reich, became barbarians. The paradox of education is precisely this – that as one begins to become conscious one begins to examine the society in which he is being educated. The purpose of education, finally, is to create in a person the ability to look at the world for himself, to make his own decisions, to say to himself this is black or this is white, to decide for himself whether there is a God in heaven or not. To ask questions of the universe, and then learn to live with those questions, is the way he achieves his own identity. But no society is really anxious to have that kind of person around.  What societies really, ideally, want is a citizenry which will simply obey the rules of society. If a society succeeds in this, that society is about to perish. The obligation of anyone who thinks of himself as responsible is to examine society and try to change it and to fight it – at no matter what risk. This is the only hope society has. This is the only way societies change.”

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The education system in the United States is a social institution. A social institution is a pattern of behaviors and social arrangements that have evolved to meet the needs of society. Quite often, how those needs are defined in official conversations is dependent on who has the social, economic, and legal power to do the defining. The reality is that from its early existence in the Western Hemisphere in the 1600s, the educational system of this country has been political, religious, and accessible only to a select few. These traits continue to influence the evolution of education in the United States today.

Given this, and since the current system in the US was derived from a system that was explicitly designed to reproduce wealth and privilege for societal elites, it should be no surprise that the foundational theorists upon which the US education rests are representative of a narrow range of perspectives on education. Many educational approaches, perspectives, and philosophies have been neglected in the development of the US system. For instance, the educational system in the US is not rooted at all in the philosophies of Aztec or Mayan civilizations. Nor does it include understandings about teaching, learning, or intellectual growth from Muslim, Hindu, or Yoruba societies. It is accurate to say the US system of education and the philosophies on which it rests are decidedly Eurocentric.

In order to understand the educational system in the US in a way that supports educators in meeting the needs of all students, it is helpful to review the educational philosophies on which this system was built.

A philosophy provides the grounding for how we understand existence and knowledge; it shapes an ontology (the study of being), or our beliefs about what it means for something or someone to be—or exist. Educational philosophy, then, offers the foundation which constructs and guides the ways knowledge is generated and passed on to others. Therefore, when thinking and reflecting about your own philosophy of education, it is essential to consider your values, beliefs and attitudes towards the educational system, as this will guide your practice.

For this reason, it is of critical importance that teachers develop a clear understanding of major philosophical traditions and the ways these traditions influence their thinking. Philosophies need to translate ideas into action. If you want to use certain techniques, you need to understand why they are effective in the classroom and how they inform that portion of your education philosophy.

Over the course of history, philosophy has experienced several paradigm shifts that influence teaching and learning. Philosophical traditions from the 19th century helped anchor the early foundations of educational philosophy and the development of public education in Europe and the United States.

3.1 Philosophical Perspectives of Education

As students ourselves, we may have a particular notion of what schooling is and should be as well as what teachers do and should do. In his book entitled Schoolteacher: A Sociological Study, Dan Lortie (1975) called this the “apprenticeship of observation” (p. 62). Many people who pursue teaching think they already know what it entails because they have generally spent at least 13 years observing teachers as they work. The role of a teacher can seem simplistic because as a student, you only see one piece of what teachers actually do day in and day out. This one-dimensional perspective can contribute to a person’s idea of what the role of teachers in schools is, as well as what the purpose of schooling should be. The idea of the purpose of schooling can also be seen as an individual’s philosophy of schooling.

Philosophy can be defined as the fundamental nature of knowledge, reality and existence. In the case of education, one’s philosophy is what one believes to be true about the essentials of education. When thinking about your philosophy of education, consider your beliefs about the roles of schools, teachers, learners, families, and communities. There are four philosophical perspectives currently used in educational settings: essentialism, perennialism, progressivism, and social reconstructionism/critical pedagogy. Unlike the more abstract philosophical perspectives of ontology and axiology, these four perspectives focus primarily on what should be taught and how it should be taught, i.e. the curriculum. These are explained below.

3.2 Four Key Educational Philosophies

In U.S. schools today, four major philosophical traditions show up in curriculum design, teaching practices, and school policies. They do not represent the full range of global educational traditions, but they are useful starting points for understanding the dominant framework you will likely encounter.

Essentialism

It is a “back-to-basics” philosophy that argues all students should learn a common core of knowledge and skills. The curriculum emphasizes reading, writing, math, science, and traditional academic disciplines. Essentialist classrooms tend to be teacher-centered, using lecture, demonstration, and direct instruction. The goal is to prepare students to be disciplined, knowledgeable members of society. (Chat GPT summary)

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Perennialism:

Perennialism focuses on universal truths—ideas that have stood the test of time. These truths are often found in classic literature, philosophy, and the arts. The goal is not just skill development but the cultivation of rational, thoughtful individuals. Perennialist classrooms often feature discussion-based learning, such as Socratic Seminar, but remain structured and teacher-guided. (summary from Chat GPT)

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Progressivism

Progressivism views learning as an active process. Students learn best through experience—investigating real problems, making choices, collaborating with peers, and reflecting on their learning. Curriculum is often integrated across subjects rather than separated. Progressivist classrooms are student-centered, emphasizing inquiry, project-based learning, and connections to students’ interests and communities. In progressivist classrooms, students have opportunities to follow their interests and have shared authority in planning and decision making with teachers. (Chat GPT)

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Social Reconstructionism

Social reconstructionism emerged as a response to the atrocities of World War II and the Holocaust, as educators sought ways to address and prevent human cruelty. This philosophy emphasizes social reform and aims to prepare students to create a more just and humane world by instilling liberatory values so that one can make change and recreate society. Conservative critics of social reconstructionism suggest that they have abandoned intellectual pursuits in education, whereas social reconstructionists believe that the analyzing of moral decisions leads to being good citizens in a democracy. Critical pedagogy later developed from the foundations of the early social reconstructionist movement.

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3.3 A Response to Dominant Systems:

Critical Pedagogy

As schooling expanded in the early 20th century, many educators began questioning whether education should simply transmit existing norms or help create a more just society. Proponents of social reconstructionism argued that education must respond to social problems—war, poverty, racism, inequality—and prepare students to imagine and build a better world.

Building on these ideas, Brazilian educator Paulo Freire introduced what is now known as critical pedagogy. Critical pedagogy is the application of critical theory to education. For critical pedagogues, teaching and learning are inherently political acts, and knowledge and language are never neutral or objective. Therefore, issues involving social, environmental, or economic justice cannot be separated from the curriculum.

Freire rejected what he called the “banking model” of education, in which teachers deposit information into passive students. Instead, he proposed a problem-posing model, where teachers and students learn in dialogue, drawing on students’ lived experiences and questioning systems of power. The goal of critical pedagogy is to emancipate marginalized or oppressed groups by developing conscientização, or critical consciousness in students, which is the ability to recognize injustice and take collective action.

Critical pedagogy also de-centers the traditional classroom, which positions teachers at the ultimate authority. Instead, a critical pedagogy approach creates a student-centered learning environment that encourages different voices, inquiry, social critique, and political action. Curriculum becomes a space where students analyze real world issues and envision possibilities for equity and liberation.

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3.4 Liberatory Thinking Vs. Liberatory Education

As a contemporary extension of Freire’s work, we will define the concepts of liberatory thinking and liberatory education, explain how they complement each other, and highlight the distinct focus of each.

Liberatory Thinking

Liberatory thinking refers to the mindsets, beliefs, and awareness individuals develop in order to recognize inequity, challenge oppressive systems, and imagine new possibilities.

According to the Chicago Public Schools Equity Framework, liberatory thinking requires:

• Understanding how systems create or perpetuate inequity
• Reflecting on one’s own positionality, biases, and assumptions
• Practicing critical consciousness
• Imagining alternatives beyond the status quo

In other words, liberatory thinking is an internal process—the cognitive and reflective work needed to see injustice clearly and envision more equitable ways of being.

Liberatory Education

Liberatory education, as Zaretta Hammond describes, is the application of the science of learning to create instruction that develops students’ cognitive independence.

According to Hammond’s article (AFT, 2021):

• Liberatory education integrates culturally responsive teaching with neuroscience
• It focuses on helping students become self-directed, confident learners
• It uses instructional methods that minimize dependency and expand the brain’s ability to learn
• Students learn to “lead their own learning”
• It positions the student as co-constructor of knowledge

Liberatory education is a pedagogical approach designed to build intellectual agency and empower students to participate fully and critically in their world.

3.5 Ways of Knowing

Much of U.S. schooling assumes there is one “correct” way to understand and organize the world, often rooted in Eurocentric ideas about time, knowledge, and learning. For instance, students begin each school day when a bell or signal goes off at the same predetermined time, a scheduling system that shapes students’ awareness of how their days, and eventually their lives, should be structured. Yet human cultures have always held multiple ways of knowing, teaching, and making sense of reality.

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Recognizing diverse ways of knowing helps us:

• Validate the cultural knowledge students bring to the classroom
• Question assumptions about what “smart” or “prepared” looks like
• Expand curriculum beyond Eurocentric models
• Build learning environments where all students’ identities and experiences matter

When you broaden your understanding of knowledge, you also broaden your understanding of who your students can become.

3.6. Foundational Educational Influencers

To understand how U.S. schooling took shape, it is helpful to begin with the mostly European influencers,  whose ideas—rooted in specific histories of power, culture, and exclusion—most deeply influenced its structure, curriculum, and expectations.

These individuals listed below are considered foundational figures whose philosophies shaped mainstream formal education in the US, while in the section after that, you will be introduced to educational figures who are often excluded from US texts but have contributed to education throughout the world. Some of this has to do with the notion of US colonialism, imperialism, exceptionalism (the belief that the United States is either distinctive, unique, or exemplary compared to other nations), and the legacy of the white supremacy and eurocentrism in the United States. Because of these legacies, very few people of color were accepted into the cannon of educational theorists. This reliance on a specific group of Eurocentric foundational thinkers has deeply influenced US education, anchoring the perspectives of educators trained throughout the 20th and 21st centuries:

Plato (Greece) c. 428 – 348 BC
Plato viewed education as the process of guiding the soul toward truth and moral virtue. In The Republic, he argued that only the most capable should become leaders and that education must prepare individuals to serve a just society.

Aristotle (Greece) 384 – 322 BC

Aristotle believed education should cultivate intellectual, moral, and civic virtues. His ideas about logic, habit formation, and systematic inquiry shaped Western thought and academic disciplines.

Quintilian (Rome) 35-100 AD
Quintilian wrote Institutio Oratoria, an early guide to teacher preparation and rhetoric. He believed learning should be joyful and that teachers must model moral character.

John Locke (England) 1632 – 1704
Locke argued that children are born as “blank slates” (tabula rasa) and learn through experience. His ideas influence behavior management, developmental expectations, and Enlightenment thought.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau (France) 1712 – 1778
Rousseau’s Emile promoted child-centered learning based on natural development. His ideas shaped modern progressivism, though his vision excluded many groups.

Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi (Switzerland) 1746 – 1827
Pestalozzi emphasized learning through the “head, heart, and hands,” nurturing relationships, and sensory-based instruction.

Friedrich Froebel (Germany)1782 – 1852
Founder of kindergarten, Froebel emphasized play, creativity, and hands-on learning materials (“Froebel’s gifts”).

Johann Herbart (Germany)1776 – 1841
Herbart developed structured lesson planning (“Herbartian Steps”), influencing early teacher education and curriculum design.

Max Weber (Germany) 1864 – 1920
Weber explained how bureaucracy shapes schools—standardization, credentialing, and hierarchical structures.

John Dewey (United States)1859 – 1952
Dewey argued that education and democracy are inseparable. His work grounds experiential, inquiry-based learning.

Maria Montessori (Italy)1870 – 1952
Montessori emphasized independence, sensory learning, and carefully prepared environments.

Jean Piaget (Switzerland) 1896 – 1980
Piaget described stages of cognitive development, shaping ideas of developmentally appropriate practice.

Lev Vygotsky (Russia) 1896 – 1934
Vygotsky emphasized social learning and the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), foundational to scaffolding and cooperative learning.

3.5 Educational Thinkers

The following individuals and theories are presented so that you can broaden your perspective beyond the traditional Eurocentric thinking.

William Edward Burghardt Du Bois

Du Bois was an American sociologist, historian and Pan-Africanist civil rights activist. Du Bois completed his graduate work at the University of Berlin and Harvard University, where he was the first African American to earn a doctorate. He became a professor of history, sociology and economics at Atlanta University. Du Bois was one of the founders of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) in 1909.

Dubois’ most significant contribution was to advocate for the professionalism and intellectual advancement of Black people in sharp contrast with Booker T. Washington’s goals of helping Black people to learn the trades, what Washington considered a more realistic post-slavery goal. Dubois, however, believed that the a broader liberal arts education was necessary to cultivate self-emancipation, critical thinking, and human dignity. Such a lofty goal indeed laid the groundwork for emancipation and liberation for formerly enslaved Black people and ultimately for oppressed people worldwide.

Carter Godwin Woodson

Woodson was an American educator, historian, author, and the founder of the Association for the Study of African American Life and History. He achieved a graduate degree at the University of Chicago and in 1912 was the second African American, after W. E. B. Du Bois, to obtain a PhD from Harvard University. Woodson remains the only person whose parents were enslaved in the United States to obtain a PhD. He taught at two historically Black colleges: Howard University and West Virginia State University. Woodson believed that education and increasing social and professional contacts among Black and White people could reduce racism, and he promoted the organized study of African-American history partly for that purpose. He would later promote the first Negro History Week in Washington, D.C., in 1926, forerunner of Black History Month.

In 1933, Woodson published The Mis-Education of the Negro. Believing that history belonged to everybody, not just the historians, Woodson sought to engage Black civic leaders, high school teachers, clergy, women’s groups, and fraternal associations in his project to improve the understanding of African-American history. He founded the Association for the Study of African American Life and History, whose purpose he described as the “scientific study” of the “neglected aspects of Negro life and history” by training a new generation of Black people in historical research and methodology

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bell hooks

hooks is a US based educational theorist and social activist. In Teaching to Transgress: Education as the Practice of Freedom, she argues that a teacher’s use of control over students dulls the students’ enthusiasm and teaches obedience to authority, and keeps students from learning critical thinking. hook’s pedagogical practices exist as an interplay of anti-colonial, critical, and feminist pedagogies and are based on freedom. hooks also built a bridge between critical thinking and real-life situations, to enable educators to show students the everyday world instead of the stereotypical perspective of the world. hooks argues that teachers and students should engage in interrogations of cultural assumptions that are supported by oppression.

note: bell hooks intentionally does not capitalize her name, which follows her critical stance that language, even how we write one’s own name, is political and ideological.

Henry Giroux

Giroux is a foundational critical theorist in the US and Canada, best known for his pioneering work in critical pedagogy in K-12 and higher ed. His work advocates supporting students developing a consciousness of freedom and connecting knowledge to power, and the ability to take constructive action. His latest work examines the pitting of people against each other through the lens of class, race, and any other differences that don’t embrace white nationalism.

3.6 Latin American Thinkers

We will now analyze the impact of the pedagogical practice, as well as the educational thought, of different key educators in Latin America. These educators influenced significant cultural and educational transformations in Latin America. The following educators stand out for their innovative tendencies and fought for educational systems to which all people had access.

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Paulo Reglus Neves Freire (1921-1997)

As described above, Freire, a Brazilian philosopher and educator, was one of the most influential thinkers behind social reconstructionism. He criticized the banking model of education in his best known writing, Pedagogy of the Oppressed, which is generally considered one of the fundamental texts of the critical pedagogy movement.  Freire supported problem-posing models of education that recognized the prior knowledge everyone has and can share with others.

Gabriela Mistral (1889- 1957)

Gabriela Mistral was a Chilean- born poet, diplomat, and educator who centered love, dignity, rural communities, and child-centered learning. She was hired to overhaul Mexico’s national educational system following the Mexican Revolution. She viewed education as an act of profound love, spiritual liberation, and social justice. Her contributions transformed schooling systems across Latin America and beyond.

Domingo Faustino Sarmiento (1811 to 1888)

Sarmiento was an Argentine politician, writer, teacher, journalist, serviceman, and statesman. He was a nation-builder who promoted centralized public education, teacher training, and literacy—while reflecting Eurocentric assumptions of his era. He was known for his controversial and anti-racist viewpoints. He questioned what was the best educational system for all of the students in Latin America. He contrasted the differing approaches of education in Massachusetts and Prussia. He believed that the students had a better option to succeed and learn independently in a society under the Prussian system, which was centralized and under the management of the state. The educational system in Massachusetts, on the contrary, was decentralized and under local control. Due to this research, he laid the foundations for a centralized educational system in Argentina.

Jesualdo Sosa (1905–1982)

Sosa, better known as Jesualdo, was a Uruguayan teacher, writer, pedagogue, and journalist. He believed traditional education was disconnected from the realities children faced. As a an educator of working class children, he grounded his ideas in these realities: promoting student autonomy, recognizing the importance of proper nutrition, co-constructing classroom discipline, and teaching personal finance so that students could learn to manage their financial realities. He pioneered education through art and believed that creative expression was critical for liberation. His ideas influenced educators across Latin America.

Simón Narciso de Jesús Carreño Rodríguez (1769–1854)

de Jesús Carreño Rodríguez was a Venezuelan hero, educator, and politician. He was centuries ahead of his time and rejected European notions of educational philosophy, proclaiming that Latin America needed an entirely new educational framework. He believed all schools should be free, public, and required for all children, regardless of race, gender, or social class. He proclaimed that a democracy could not function with an illiterate majority. Independence, he believed, was not just fought on the battlefield but built on a daily basis in equitable classrooms. He is considered the philosophical grandfather of Latin American critical pedagogy.

José Julián Martí Pérez (1853–1895)

Martí Pérez is a revered Cuban hero, poet,  politician, thinker, journalist, and philosopher. He believed  true independence from colonial powers was only possible through education, and that this was foundational to living in a democratic society. Most of his life’s work and educational philosophy reflected this goal of independence from colonial influences. Some of his contributions included critical thinking, compassion in education, universal education, rural education, learning via the arts, anti-racism, adult education, a distinct sense of Latin American identity, and an anti-colonial mind-set.

Conclusion

Like learning, teaching is always developing; it is never realized once and for all. Our public schools have always served as sites of moral, economic, political, religious and social conflict and assimilation into a narrowly defined standard image of what it means to be an American. According to Britzman (as quoted by Kelle, 1996), “the context of teaching is political, it is an ideological context that privileges the interests, values, and practices necessary to maintain the status quo.” Teaching is by no means “innocent of ideology,” she declares. Rather, the context of education tends to preserve “the institutional values of compliance to authority, social conformity, efficiency, standardization, competition, and the objectification of knowledge” (p. 66-67).

It should be no surprise then that contemporary debates over public education continue to reflect our deepest ideological differences. As Tyack and Cuban (1995) have noted in their historical study of school reform, the nation’s perception toward schooling often “shift[s]… from panacea to scapegoat” (p. 14). We would go a long way in solving academic achievement and closing educational gaps by addressing the broader structural issues that institutionalize and perpetuate poverty and inequality.

References

AFT – American Federation of Teachers. (n.d.).  American Federation of Teachers website

April 14, 1947: Mendez v. Westminster court ruling. (2023, May 25). Zinn Education Project website.

ASU Local-Los Angeles welcomes its 3rd cohort of students. (2021, September 24). ASU News. Arizona State University News website

Baldwin, J. (1985). The Negro child – His self-image. In The price of the ticket: Collected non-fiction, 1948–1985 (pp. 325–332). St. Martin’s. (Original work published 1963) [1, 2, 3]

Bored Teachers. (n.d.). 12 Black educators who changed history that we should all know about. Bored Teachers website

BBC News. (2021, June 24). Canada: 751 unmarked graves found at residential school. BBC News. BBC News website

Bennett, Jr., Lerone (2005). “Carter G. Woodson, Father of Black History”. United States Department of State. Archived from the original on April 1, 2011. Retrieved May 30, 2011.

Del Maestro Cmf, W. (2023). Maestros de América Latina, una serie que todo educador y estudiante de educación tiene que ver. Web Del Maestro CMF. Maestros de Latino America website

Du Bois, W. E. B. (1997). Carter G. Woodson to Du Bois. In The correspondence of W. E. B. Du Bois (Vol. 3, p. 282). University of Massachusetts Press.

Du Bois, W. E. B. (1994). The souls of Black folk. Gramercy Books.

Evans, N. E. C. (2021, July 11). A federal probe into Indian boarding school gravesites seeks to bring healing. NPR. National Public Radio website

Hine, Darlene Clark. (1986). Carter G. Woodson, white philanthropy and Negro historiography. The History Teacher, 19(3), 407–421. JSTOR website

hooks, bell. (1994). Teaching to transgress: Education as the practice of freedom. Routledge.

Jan. 5, 1931: Lemon Grove incident. (2023, January 6).  Zinn Education Project website

Jones, Joy S. San Diego Voice & Viewpoint. (2023, March 28). 12 Black women educators you should know. The San Diego Voice and Viewpoint

Kahn, J. S. (2009). Divine discontent: The religious imagination of W. E. B. Du Bois. Oxford University Press.

Lewis, David Levering. (1993). W. E. B. Du Bois: Biography of a race 1868–1919. Henry Holt and Co.

Liberatory thinking. (n.d.).  Chicago Public Schools website

Love, B. (2012). The foundation: Hip hop ed. Bettina Love website

Love, B. (2019). We want to do more than survive: Abolitionist teaching and the pursuit of educational freedom. Beacon Press.

National Education Association. (n.d.). National Education Association

National Park Service. (n.d.). Carter G. Woodson: Winona, WV – New River Gorge National Park and Preserve. U.S. Department of the Interior. https://www.nps.gov/neri/planyourvisit/carter-g-woodson-winona-wv.htm

Paulo Freire. (n.d.).  Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy

PBS Online: Only a Teacher: Schoolhouse pioneers. (n.d.). PBS. Public Broadcasting Station

Perez, D. (2022a, January 3). Chapter 4: Foundational philosophies of education. Pressbooks. New Prairie Press

Perez, D. (2022b, January 3). Social foundations of K-12 education.  New Prairie Press

Scott, D. M. (2011). The history of Black History Month. Association for the Study of African American Life and History. Archived from the original on July 23, 2011. The History of Black History Month

Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes (A. R. Luria, M. Lopez-Morillas, & M. Cole, Trans.). Harvard University Press. (Original work published ca. 1930–1934)

Wamba, Philippe. (1999). Kinship. Penguin Group.

IMAGES

3. 1 – “Two silhouette profile or a white vase.” by Wikimedia Commons is in the Public Domain, CC0

3. 2 – “W.E.B. Du Bois” by James E. Purdy, Wikimedia Commons is licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0

3. 3 – “Carter Godwin Woodson” by Flickr is licensed under CC BY 4.0

3. 4 – “bell hooks” by Wikimedia Commons is licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0

3. 5 – “Henry Giroux” by Flickr is licensed under CC BY 4.0

3. 6 – “Paulo Freire” by Wikimedia Commons is licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0

3. 7- “Gabriela Mistral sonriendo” by Wikimedia Commons is licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0

3. 8 – “Sarmiento” by Get Archive is in the Public Domain, CC0

3. 9 – “Simón Rodriguez” by Wikipedia is licensed under CC BY 4.0

3. 10 – “Jose Vasconsuelos” by Wikipedia is licensed under CC BY 4.0

3. 11- “Jose Marti” by Wikipedia is licensed underCC BY 4.0

Videos

3.1 The danger of a single story “ by Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie, YouTube is licensed under CC BY 4.0Essentialism in Education (Essentialist Philosophy of Education, Essentialist Theory of Education)s” by PHILO-notes, YouTube is licensed under CC BY 4.0

3. 2 -“Perennialism: Overview & Practical Teaching Examples” by Shayla Czuchran, YouTube is licensed under CC BY 4.0

3. 3 – “Progressivism: Overview & Practical Teaching Examples” by Teea Shook, YouTube is licensed under CC BY 4.0

3. 4 – “Social Reconstruction” by Sarah Barlowe, YouTube is licensed under CC BY 4.0

3. 5 – “Paulo Freire’s Critical Pedagogy” by Dr. Yu-Ling Lee, YouTube is licensed under CC BY 4.0

3. 6 – “The Earth Talks: Indigenous Ways of Knowing – with Pat McCabe” by Dartington Trust, YouTube is licensed under CC BY 4.0

3. 7 – “Presentación de la serie Maestros de América Latina” by UNIPE Universidad Pedagógica Nacional, YouTube is licensed under CC BY 4.0

3. 8 ” Real Talk: Hip Hop Education for Social Justice – Session Eight” by Bettina Love is licensed under Public Domain, CC0