Glossary

a phrase used to describe the experiences of Black and Indigenous people of color who feel watched, harassed, and targeted by police, particularly when driving and being stopped for minor traffic violations

a term often used to refer to the climate of modern American policing following the killing of Michael Brown in August of 2014; it is associated with a shift in focus after nationwide concerns over police brutality, racism, and training

found guilty by the court

the perception that Black children are older and less innocent than white children resulting from racial bias (Cooke & Halberstadt, 2021)

harmful and traumatic experiences for youth that may occur in a child’s life any time before they reach the age of 18 that have long-term damaging effects (CDC, 2023)

age at which an individual becomes legally responsible for criminal law violation through the adult court system

court session in which people are formally told their criminal charges

rigid thinkers who obey authority, see the world as black and white, and strictly adhere to social rules and hierarchies

Once a term referring to rich black soil, it now refers to area in the Southern region of the U.S. that consists of predominantly Black communities, primarily as a result of the history of slavery

called the Black Panther Party, this group was formed by Black college students Huey P. Newton and Bobby Seale in California in 1966 in response to Black communities being terrorized by police brutality. Its initial goal was to observe police activity within Black communities and to protect against any attacks (History, 2023), and it later evolved to get more Black officials into elected political positions.

Name for March 7, 1965, when police and a citizen posse violently attacked civil rights protestors marching from Selma to Montgomery

the police practice - based on broken windows theory - of focusing enforcement efforts on petty crimes that indicate disorder, with the assumption that this would reduce more violent crime

theory introduced in the 1980s suggesting the environment of a particular space signals its health to the public, including potential vandals, and that by maintaining an organized environment, individuals are dissuaded from causing disarray in that particular location; this theory dramatically transformed policing policies and practices that had a major impact on people of color

stressed a hyperinflated notion of manhood that centers on the idea of respect, published by Elijah Anderson in 1999. Also called street culture.

the difficulty of changing a person’s way of thinking once they believe a stereotype, which can cause them to look for patterns to support that belief

personality traits and behavioral characteristics people learn

rules a person must follow during probation

theories that examine society through the lens of power struggles and inequality, often applied to inequalities of gender, social class, education, race, and ethnicity

agreement between a court and a police agency or other involved party involving mandates, supervision, and enforcement by the court to make sure that the involved parties are following the plan to improve performance or correct identified wrongs

branch of the criminal legal system that controls the behavior of convicted persons including probation, parole, and incarceration

the idea that institutional racism is so embedded in the legal institutions of the United States that law functions to create and maintain inequalities between white and Black people

the economic, social and political integration of an ethnic minority group into mainstream society (Keefe & Padilla, 1987). Initially referred to as assimilation.

a group’s shared practices, values, and beliefs.

something is still against the law, but violations usually result only in a ticket.

refers to the social connectedness of rural areas in which everyone knows each other

the unfair treatment of marginalized groups, resulting from the implementation of biases, and often reinforced by existing social processes that disadvantage racial minorities

sentencing

overrepresentation of ethnic, racial, and linguistic minority youth in the juvenile system

placing the youth in an alternative punishment for their behavior or dismissing the case altogether

Black people carry dual notions of how they see themselves, while at the same time negotiating how they are seen through the lens of racial oppression

refers to the procedures used by our government to control the use and sales of psychoactive substances, particularly those that are addictive

“a form of moral panic ideologically constructed to construe one or another chemical substance as the core cause of a wide array of preexisting public problems” (Reinarman 1994

a policy or practice that, intentionally or unintentionally, differentially affects or disadvantages people based on race or color (Bullard, 1993)

shared social, cultural, and historical experiences of people from common national or regional backgrounds that make subgroups of a population different

manipulation of the human gene pool by controlling reproduction and/or eliminating populations deemed inferior

the racism people of color are exposed to in the repetitive or familiar practices of everyday situations, including unconscious attitudes and interactions

officially recognizing someone’s innocence despite their conviction and letting them go free

the process of simultaneously analyzing the behavior of individuals and the society that shapes that behavior, meaning that as one analyzes the social institutions in a society, the individuals using that institution need to be ‘figured’ into the analysis.

Frustation Theory; Individuals who experience various kinds of problems become frustrated and tend to blame their troubles on groups that are often disliked in the real world (e.g., racial, ethnic, and religious minorities), thus becoming scapegoats for the real sources of people’s misfortunes.

emphasizes that all the elements of society have functions that promote solidarity and maintain order and stability in society

an expansion of strain theory that argues social injustice or inequality may be at the root of strain - not just the search for the American Dream - which includes adolescence and asserts delinquency is a natural reaction to an adolescent’s perception society is stacked against them (Agnew 1992)

the deliberate destruction and systematic killing of targeted groups of vulnerable people

sociological theory that prejudice results from hostility between groups engaged in competition over jobs, resources, and disagreement over various political issues

focuses on providing people who use drugs or participate in risky activities with the information and material tools to reduce their risks while participating in these activities.

property or violent crimes that are motivated by bias, usually related to one’s actual or perceived identity regarding race, ethnicity, color, country of origin, religion, gender or gender identity, sexuality, or disability

the type of racism that occurs between individuals, including the beliefs, attitudes, and actions of individuals that support or perpetuate racism. Also called interpersonal racism.

traits and characteristics people have due to genetics

to send the youth’s case into the court system, which means that the child now has a juvenile justice system record, no matter the outcome

occurs at all levels of social organization such as rivalries between gangs, organized disputes, race riots, and international warfare.

the way people who belong to social groups or categories perceive, think about, feel about, and act towards and interact with people in other groups.

theory exposing philosophical foundations that underlie multiple systems of oppression (Collins 1986)

punishments that tend to happen in the community and do not include incarceration, sometimes referred to as community corrections or community supervision

occurs when members of a racial or ethnic group are conquered or colonized and forcibly placed under the economic and political control of the dominant group within a country or internally

theory which suggests we cannot separate the effects of race, class, gender, sexual orientation, and other attributes (Collins 1990)

a formal, codified system of racial apartheid, that prevailed not just in the South but in the entire nation.

Jim-Crow Racism; This racism was systematic and involved blatant bigotry, firm beliefs in the need for segregation, and the view that Black people were biologically inferior to white people.

a series of immigration policies that disproportionately affect Latino communities through racial profiling.

a term used to describe when a juvenile is sentenced to life in prison without the possibility of parole.

sociological concept describing how labeling people or providing meanings attached to labels has real social consequences

a philosophy and set of empowerment-based practices that teach us how to accompany each other as we transform the root causes of harm in our lives. It is true self-determination and total body autonomy.

social research focusing on trends among and between large groups and societies

refers to the overwhelming size and scale of the U.S. prison population

a concept that says that society has multiple interlocking levels of domination that stem from the societal configuration of race, class, and gender (Andersen and Collins 1992)

social research focusing on small groups and individual interactions.

the everyday, subtle, intentional or unintentional interactions or behaviors that communicate some sort of bias toward historically marginalized groups

early 19th-century American theater featuring white actors in blackface makeup who stereotyped Black people as entertainment

the network of laws and practices that enforce social control on communities of color and disproportionately funnel Black Americans into the criminal justice system; this strips them of their constitutional rights as a punishment for their offenses in the same way that Jim Crow laws did in previous eras

communities where access to credible and comprehensive news coverage is non-existent

to look something without bias

refers to the surge in fatal overdoses linked to opioid use (DeWeerdt 2019)

a perspective or lens through which one views reality

the perceived concept of discrimination, oppression, and prejudice directed toward white individuals because of their race

decision-making power that law enforcement officers possess for when and how to enforce the law

the degree to which society or a community views law enforcement as a legitimate and respected authority

an individual attitude based on inflexible and irrational generalizations about a group of people and literally means “judging before.”

a legal doctrine that protects government officials from constitutional rights violation lawsuits over actions taken during their work duties unless those actions violate “clearly established law”

a category of people grouped because they share inherited physical characteristics that are identifiable, such as skin color, hair texture, facial features, and stature

theories that were not designed to specifically address racial differences in crime and victimization. They assume all groups are equal.

theories center their discussion on race and ethnicity: theories that center their discussion on race and ethnicity.

when police use race or ethnicity as a primary or sole factor when choosing to engage with or take enforcement action against someone

automatic and exaggerated mental pictures that we hold about all members of a particular racial group.

decriminalizing and medicalizing the sphere of opioid use by white people and continuing to criminalize and control the sphere of opioid use by Black communities.

the enactment of specific policies to deter deviousness that disproportionately impacts people of color (Patel, 2018).

extends the concept of socialization by focusing on the process by which parents transmit both implicit and explicit messages about the meaning of one’s race in a broader societal context (Coard & Sellers, 2005)

a form of prejudice that refers to a set of negative attitudes, beliefs, and judgments about whole categories of people, and about individual members of those categories because of their perceived race and ethnicity.

reoffending and rearrest

when an arrested individual is released based on trust that they’ll return for their court date

cancelling probation and sending a person to jail for failure to follow probation conditions

simply put, non-urban spaces with lower populations and lots of undeveloped land

the depiction of rural spaces as simple, wholesome, peaceful, and without crime

social-psychological explanation of prejudice stating that individuals who experience various kinds of problems become frustrated and tend to blame their troubles on groups that are often disliked in the real world (e.g., racial, ethnic, and religious minorities), thus becoming scapegoats for the real sources of people’s misfortunes. Also called frustration theory.

ideology that “appropriates the methods and legitimacy of science to argue for the superiority of white Europeans and the inferiority of non-white people whose social and economic status have been historically marginalized”

from a legal lens, is the practice of requiring separate housing, education and other services for people of color

groups of predominantly white men who would hunt down, punish, and return runaway Black people to their legal enslavers. Developed in 1704 in South Carolina, these patrols became the first publicly funded police agencies in the Southern region of the United States

a social construct or construction is a concept, idea, or meaning that is established and largely agreed upon by a society; it has no objective reality, but is what people decide it is (Berger & Luckmann, 1963).

organized action intended to change people’s behavior (Innes 2003).

theory that neighborhoods with weak community controls caused by poverty, residential mobility, and ethnic heterogeneity will experience a higher level of criminal and delinquent behavior

the laws, morals, values, religious beliefs, customs, fashions, rituals, and cultural rules that govern social life

a group, organization, or social arrangement that is created to serve the needs of society

theory emphasizing conformity and socialization, which suggests prejudiced people are merely conforming to the culture in which they grow up, and prejudice is the result of socialization from parents, peers, the news media, and other various aspects of their culture.

a cumulation of cultural values and norms from a period

Asserts that dominant groups in society may feel that their way of life is being threatened by disadvantaged groups and might take action to protect their power and the status quo

the process through which people are taught to be proficient members of a society.

a group of people living in a defined geographic area that has a common culture

an awareness of the relationship between a person’s behavior and experience and the culture that shaped their choices and perceptions (Mills, 1959)

the scientific and systematic study of human relationships, institutions, groups and group interactions, societies, and social interactions, from small and personal groups to large groups

theory which argues that four factors—social class, school performance, status frustration, and reaction formation (coping methods)—contribute to the development of delinquency in juveniles (Cohen 1955)

something that is not allowed for a child but is for an adult

widely held beliefs or assumptions about a group of people based on perceived characteristics.

uprising in the gay liberation movement on June 28, 1969, when police in New York City raided the Stonewall Inn and patrons fought back, leading to a 6-day riot

Merton’s theory that when people face strain, social norms become confused, resulting in a willingness to take alternative routes or use alternative means to get to the goals people want

an identifiable subgroup within the larger culture whose values may differ from those present in the dominant group

theory that suggests violence is not expressed in every situation but rather that individuals are constantly prepared for violence (Wolfgang & Ferracuti, 1982)

to rely on judgments - rather than external facts - driven by personal feelings and opinions

micro-level theory that focuses on meanings attached to human

refers to how racism is embedded in the fabric of society and how institutional processes are used to maintain systematic discrimination through the complex interactions of large scale societal systems, practices, ideologies, and programs that produce and perpetuate inequities for racial minorities. Also referred to as institutional or structural racism.

scientific explanations of things happening around us, such as patterns in social behavior, and how certain things are related

the practice of including underrepresented groups on a symbolic level only, with no real effort made to integrate all of the members

the spread of urban people and development to rural areas (may also be referred to as urban sprawl)

movement of people from rural settings to cities and metropolitan areas that results in the growth of urban places

the treatment of urban spaces as the normal and default locations of societal, research, and policy interest and attention

an effort in the United States since the 1970s to combat illegal drug use by greatly increasing penalties, enforcement, and incarceration for drug offenders (Britannica 2023).

the pursuit of gender equity in a way that systematically ignores—and benefits from—the impact of race, power, and dominance of white women in society

a term referring to the movement of white people from racially diversifying areas to the suburbs

the special benefits, protections, and access to the power conferred onto white people

the racist belief that white people are superior to people of other races and ethnicities