9.9 Movements for Change: Feminism
In this chapter, you learned about many different types of gender inequality. You might be wondering what has been done to address these issues. The feminist movement (also known as the women’s liberation movement, the women’s movement, or simply feminism) refers to a series of political campaigns for reform on a variety of issues that affect women’s quality of life. Feminism argues that women and men should have equal legal and political rights. The movement advocates for economic, political, and social equality regardless of the sex one is assigned at birth. It also argues that the systematic oppression of people based on gender is problematic and should be changed. Although there have been feminist movements all over the world, this section will focus on the four eras of the feminist movement in the United States, which are referred to as “waves.”
When we first introduced feminist theory in Chapter 2, we focused on the third wave. Now you will learn how each wave of feminism has had slightly different goals, often highlighting the needs of an underrepresented group at a given historical moment. Current social movements suggest we are in the fourth wave.
First Wave: Suffrage Movement (1800s–1920s)
The first wave of feminism aimed to obtain voting rights for women and educational access. The movement began with a convention in Seneca Falls, New York, in 1848 organized by Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott (History.com 2022). With about 300 women and men participants at the convention, a Declaration of Sentiments was signed stating that men and women were created equal and that women should be granted the right to vote. American women eventually won the right to vote in 1920. Women’s suffragists collected signatures to support their right to vote and marched in parades to increase the visibility of their cause (figure 9.22).
The movement had significant links to the abolitionist and suffragette forums through activists such as Sojourner Truth and Paulie Murray. The first wave understood equal rights as the admission of women to political and economic spaces. However, legally achieving the right to vote and having access to education did not mean feminism had achieved the goal of equality.
Second Wave: The Problem That Had No Name (1960s–1980s)
The second wave was fueled by activism centered on gaining equal access to education and employment for women (figure 9.23). Culturally and politically, we saw the publication of Betty Friedan’s The Feminine Mystique in 1963, the establishment of the National Organization for Women (NOW) in 1966, and the development of women’s consciousness raising groups. You can explore the NOW [Website] more if you wish. Friedan’s (1963) writings uncovered the “problem with no name” that was impacting women everywhere. This “problem” was the widespread unhappiness of women in the 1950s and 1960s. She argued that the dissatisfaction women expressed about their lives indicated that women no longer found traditional gender roles fulfilling.
The 1960s and 1970s unfolded within a framework of anti-war movements, distrust of the state, the civil rights movement, and growing awareness about social minorities beyond gender or race. Radical thinking within the movement already existed from the first wave. It became normalized and adopted as a fundamental part of feminist behavior. Voices like those of Gloria Steinem, Angela Davis, and Dolores Huerta became representative of the movement. Themes centered on reproductive and sexual rights, feminine empowerment, anticolonialism, and the stirrings of intersectionality.
The involvement of more women outside the home transformed feminism. It was no longer just about women as a single group. Popular magazines served as useful tools to spread information about the feminist movement (figure 9.24). Feminism began to encompass diverse topics such as women and civil rights, women and work, and women and rural labor, among others. By the 1990s, feminism had consolidated as a social movement with a global reach. These years marked the end of the second wave and the beginning of the third. A different conceptual framework emerged to change how we understand grassroots feminism and its diversification, including queer theory.
Third Wave: Centering Diverse Voices (1990s–2008)
The third wave emerged out of the feminist criticisms that the first two waves primarily focused on the needs of women who were mostly White and middle class. This reaction came at a time when feminism was influenced by postmodernism. Previous feminist movements often marginalized and overlooked the concerns of women of color, lesbians, and working-class individuals. One of the goals we see in the third wave is to work toward social justice and equity along the lines of race, social class, sex, gender, and sexuality. By centering the experiences of women of color, the third wave is also concerned with globalization and women’s rights in all countries.
As you learned in Activity: Intersectionality, Dr. Kimberlé Crenshaw discusses intersectionality as the idea that we experience life, including opportunities and discrimination, based on several different identities that we have. Dr. Crenshaw’s concept of intersectionality became important to understanding how multiple identities are intertwined and impact life chances for individuals and groups.
In addition to intersectionality, we see the emergence of queer theory during the third wave. You will learn more about queer theory in Chapter 10. The 1980s were especially hard for the LGBTQIA+ community. The public response to the AIDS epidemic made clear the need to create organizations that advocated for the human dignity of non-heteronormative people. You may choose to learn more about this from a 2016 paper [Website]. Gender and sexuality became the subject of both feminism and the LGBTQIA+ movement. Queer theory encompasses three actions: 1) promoting sexual expressions other than heterosexuality, 2) challenging the belief that lesbian and gay sexuality studies are one, and 3) shining a light on how race influences sexual biases.
Third wave feminists effectively used mass media, particularly the web (“cybergrrls” and “netgrrls”), to create a feminism that is global, multicultural, and boundary-crossing. One important third wave sub-group was the Riot Grrrl movement (figure 9.25), whose DIY (do it yourself) ethos produced several influential, independent feminist musicians, such as Bikini Kill and Sleater-Kinney. However, third wave feminism’s focus on identity and the blurring of boundaries did not effectively address many persistent macrosociological issues such as sexual harassment and sexual assault, which will become a focus of fourth wave feminists.
Fourth Wave: #MeToo #TimesUp (2008–present)
The fourth and current wave of feminism maintains a focus on intersectionality and empowering women by removing the stigma associated with experiences with sexual harassment, body shaming, and rape culture. Social media and the internet play important roles in building awareness around social injustices, particularly through internet activism. The fourth wave critically examines gender norms and the marginalization of women, while seeking gender equity.
During this wave, social media has offered women an opportunity to speak up and share their experiences with sexual harassment, sexual violence, and sexism in the workplace. Within a matter of seconds, the internet provided a tool for women to speak freely about topics in their own words. In the next section, “Activity: Origins of the #MeToo Movement,” you’ll have an opportunity to learn more about how this movement started and evolved with the use of social media.
Accusations against men in powerful positions—from Hollywood directors to Supreme Court justices to the president of the United States, have catalyzed feminists in a way that appears to be fundamentally different from previous movements. We can already see the impact of this movement on some laws. Initially, some states banned nondisclosure agreements that cover sexual harassment and expanded protections for workers that are not covered by federal sexual harassment and state laws, such as independent contractors (North 2019). The passing of the Speak Out Act in 2022 prohibits the enforcement of non-disclosure agreements when there are allegations of workplace sexual harassment or sexual assault as a way to provide increased options for people to bring their claims in court (if you’d like to learn more, visit this website).
Historian Martha Rampton captures the spirit of fourth wave feminists well. Rampton (2015) states, “The emerging fourth wavers are not just reincarnations of their second wave grandmothers; they bring to the discussion important perspectives taught by third wave feminism; they speak in terms of intersectionality whereby women’s suppression can only fully be understood in a context of the marginalization of other groups and genders—feminism is part of a larger consciousness of oppression along with racism, ageism, classism, ableism, and sexual orientation (no “ism” to go with that).”
Will the next generation of activists help us move into the fifth wave of feminism? How might this movement intertwine with the U.S. Supreme Court ruling to overturn Roe v. Wade in June 2022? How will leaders of a new movement continue to draw on the work of their predecessors? As we raise these questions, we are excited to see how feminist movements will continue to evolve.
Activity: Origins of the #MeToo Movement
In this short video (figure 9.26), you will learn more about #MeToo and how it connects to a movement started in 2006.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fSbFFwHDzQo
Please watch the video and come back to answer the following questions:
- In what ways does the #MeToo movement connect experiences across racial categories?
- How has technology played a role in shaping activism?
To learn more about women’s opinions on the #MeToo movement, check out this optional video, Women are not as divided on #MeToo as it may seem [Streaming Video].
Licenses and Attributions for Movements for Change: Feminism
Open Content, Original
“Movements for Change: Feminism” by Jennifer Puentes is licensed under CC BY 4.0.
“Activity: Origins of the #MeToo Movement” is adapted from “Founder of “Me Too” movement speaks out” by CBS News, licensed under the Standard YouTube License, and is licensed CC BY 4.0. Modifications include activity framing and authoring questions.
Open Content, Shared Previously
“Movements for Change: Feminism” is from “Why Isn’t Feminism Just One Movement?” by Sofía García-Bullé in Observatory of Educational Innovation of Tecnológico de Monterrey, which is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0. Paragraphs three (first wave), five to six (second wave), and nine (third wave) edited for consistency and clarity; all other content in this section is original content by Jennifer Puentes and licensed under CC BY 4.0.
“Movements for Change: Feminism” is from “Feminist Movements and Feminist Theory” in Lumen/Openstax Introduction to Sociology, which is licensed under CC BY 4.0.
“Feminism” definition expanded from the Open Education Sociology Dictionary, by Kenton Bell, which is licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0.
Figure 9.22. “Women’s suffragists parade in New York City in 1917, carrying placards with the signatures of more than a million women” by Unknown author – The New York Times photo archive is in the Public Domain.
Figure 9.24. “Ms. magazine Cover – Spring 1972” by Liberty Media for Women, LLC is licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0.
Figure 9.25. “Riot Grrrl Convention 1992 by Rockcreek” by RockCreek is licensed under CC BY 2.0.
All Rights Reserved Content
Figure 9.23. Photo by Hollis for Archival Discovery is included under fair use.
Figure 9.26. “Founder of “Me Too” movement speaks out” by CBS News is licensed under the Standard YouTube License.
a term that refers to the behaviors, personal traits, and social positions that society attributes to being female or male
a perspective based on the idea that women and men should have equal legal and political rights. Feminism views the systematic oppression of people based on gender as problematic and something that should be changed. Also discussed as a feminist movement or a series of political campaigns for reform on a variety of issues that affect women’s quality of life
physical or physiological differences between males and females, including both primary sex characteristics (the reproductive system) and secondary characteristics such as height and muscularity.
a combination of prejudice and institutional power that creates a system that regularly and severely discriminates against some groups and benefits other groups.
a statement that proposes to describe and explain why facts or other social phenomena are related to each other based on observed patterns.
any collection of at least two people who interact with some frequency and who share some sense of aligned identity.
patterns of behavior that are representative of a person’s social status.
a category of identity that ascribes social, cultural, and political meaning and consequence to physical characteristics.
is a field of critical theory that emerged in the early 1990s out of queer studies and women's studies; it emphasizes the fluidity of gender and sexualities and the performative qualities of them.
a set of people who share similar status based on factors like wealth, income, education, family background, and occupation.
the sexual feelings, thoughts, attractions and behaviors individuals have toward other people.
the idea that inequalities produced by multiple interconnected social characteristics can influence the life course of an individual or group. Intersectionality, then, suggests that we should view gender, race, class, or sexuality not as individual characteristics but as interconnected social situations.
actions against a group of people. Discrimination can be based on race, ethnicity, age, religion, health, and other categories.
a term used to describe gender and sexual identities other than cisgender and heterosexual.
an abbreviation for lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, intersex, and asexual. The additional “+” stands for all of the other identities not encompassed in the short acronym. An umbrella term that is often used to refer to the community as a whole.
a society or environment whose prevailing social attitudes have the effect of normalizing or trivializing sexual assault and abuse.
the social expectations of how to behave in a situation.
the belief that some individuals or groups are superior to others based on sex or gender.
a type of prejudice and discrimination used to justify inequalities against individuals by maintaining that one racial category is somehow superior or inferior to others; it is a set of practices used by a racial dominant group to maximize advantages for itself by disadvantaging racial minority groups.
enduring patterns of romantic or sexual attraction (or a combination of these) to persons of the opposite sex or gender, the same sex or gender, or to both sexes or more than one gender.