Violence in the workplace does happen. In 2019, there were “5333 fatal workplace injuries” (Occupational Safety and Health Administration N.d.) yet 2 million people every year face some type of violence at work. From interpersonal harassment or threats of physical violence to mass shootings—workers who are alone in the workplace, work with unstable people, or directly handle customer money are often exposed to a higher risk of violence. Reporting of workplace violence is thought to be much lower than actual offenses. Violence, regardless of scope or size, is a significant barrier to an effective workplace and productive workers. Although policies are in place in most workplaces, bullying, sexual harassment, and physical assaults occur at great cost to industries.

8.6.1 Sex Worker Violence

Due to the illegal nature and societal stigma of sex work, violence in the industry is often not reported. According to one study, “globally, sex workers have a 45%-75% chance of experiencing sexual violence on the job” (Sex workers project N.d.). Workers have little resources to leave the industry if they wish, much less the funds or freedom to seek assistance with assaults or other crimes. Agencies seeking to aid victims of sex work violence suggest governments can help protect sex workers from violence by providing amnesty for their own illegal work.

Secondary crimes such as theft and violence in or around strip clubs create concern for communities such as Portland, Oregon, with a high density of clubs. However, data is inclusive as to whether strip clubs have higher crime rates or whether the clubs are located in areas with existing higher crime (Fleming 2017). Underage workers are prevalent in sex work throughout the United States, not just on the street, but also in regulated strip clubs. Police stings on strip clubs and erotic dancing establishments found prostitution, and even underage prostitution is a common occurrence.

If law enforcement does respond to reports of violence against sex workers, the uphill battle for justice for sex workers continues in the courtroom. Long-held biases and industry myths pervade the criminal justice community, so prosecution of perpetrators for crimes against sex workers is difficult. Perpetrators of violence against sex workers are also highly aware that they will not be prosecuted. The lack of trust in the justice system, difficulty in prosecuting violent offenders of sex workers, and perpetrators knowing they will not be prosecuted sustains a dangerous work environment for a highly vulnerable population.

8.6.2 Workplace Harassment

In 1986, the Supreme Court found sexual harassment illegal in the workplace. The case “held that an employer is absolutely liable for sexual harassment by supervisory personnel, whether or not the employer knew or should have known about it” (Justia N.d.). Since that finding, workplace harassment has continued across all industries. Harassment is briefly defined as unwelcome conduct based on demographic variables, and such behavior violates federal law. Sexual harassment is a specific type of harassment due to a person’s sex. Unwelcome interactions, comments, or physical contact of a sexual nature are included in the sexual harassment definition. Further details of the United States’ Equal Employment Opportunity Commission’s definition of harassment can be found on their website here: https://www.eeoc.gov/harassment.

Prejudice and discrimination against transgender workers have led to unemployment rates three times higher than cis-gendered workers (James et al., 2016). Transgender workers often report harassment as a reason they leave a job. Positive progress in legal support for transgender workers has occurred in recent years such as the 2020 finding by the Supreme Court Bostock v. Clayton County. This case confirmed that it is not legal to discriminate against transgender and homosexual workers under the Civil Rights Act of 1964, Title VII.

The fiscal year 2018 saw a high of 7609 federal harassment charges, with a slight yearly decline since then (Equal Employment Opportunity Commission N.d.). A 2015 report on transgender workers found that “Thirty percent (30%) of respondents who had a job in the past year reported being fired, denied a promotion, or experiencing some other form of mistreatment in the workplace related to their gender identity or expression, such as being harassed or attacked” (James et al., 2016:13). The hospitality, service, and restaurant industries, which have large numbers of female employees in low-wage positions, are found to have the highest levels of harassment. Over three-quarters of harassment claims are made by women. Some reports find that about 10% of men have experienced workplace harassment.

Research finds that reports of harassment complaints at work are much lower than what actually occurs. This is due to various factors, including stigma, fear of revenge by the perpetrator, difficulties knowing who to report to, and fear of job loss. Most workplaces have policies in place to address workplace harassment. From required employee training to regulations ensuring the right to privacy is maintained, progress has been made to prevent the issue and to support harassed workers. Federal, state, and local government agencies and numerous non-profit organizations exist to help workers needing legal advice and emotional and physical support.

One significant event in the history of workplace harassment was the 1991 confirmation process of now Supreme Court Justice Clarence Thomas. While then-attorney and now-professor Anita Hill worked under Justice Thomas, she reported during the proceedings he had open conversations in the workplace about sexual acts and scenarios after she refused advances for social activities. Other women came forward with their own stories about sexual harassment, all of which were denied by Justice Thomas. After a lengthy debate, including accusations attacking Hill’s credibility and having her take a polygraph test confirming her statements, Justice Thomas was confirmed to his seat on the Supreme Court. As a very public discussion of workplace sexual harassment, the event opened the door to more widespread conversations about sexual harassment at all levels of the workplace.

8.6.2.1 White-Collar Workers and Harassment

Workplace harassment happens in all areas of all industries. White-collar workers are no exception. One report notes that “34% of women and 13 % of men” (Center for Talent Innovation 2018) white-collar workers have experienced sexual harassment. Workers in the media industry, Latina and White women, and the millennial age group reported the highest rates of sexual harassment. Also, nearly a quarter of Black women reported being “harassed by other women, more than double any other race” (Center for Talent Innovation 2018).

Technology may be a factor in bullying and harassment for white-collar workers which is not as prevalent in blue-collar settings. White-collar crimes include insider-trading, corporate fraud, and money laundering which require skills in computers, banking, and an understanding of the legal system. White-collar workers may face violence and harassment through coworkers’ use of technology such as tech-savvy stalkers secretly placing location trackers on a victim’s vehicle or person, bullying or threats via electronic means, hacking into financial and social media accounts, or threat of legal action.

8.6.2.2 Blue-Collar Workers and Harassment

Blue-collar workers who experience workplace harassment and violence have fewer options than white-collar employees to address the issue. Blue-collar workers may not have the means to avoid or prosecute harassers. These workers typically do not have formal education, reliable transportation, or professional networking resources and suffer strained financial resources compared to white-collar workers. They may also work for smaller companies without a designated human resource employee to make formal complaints to or who will maintain privacy. It is a struggle for harassed workers to leave toxic work environments to find other employment.

8.6.3 Pay Disparities and Lack of Childcare Options as Violence

Workers may struggle to make ends meet when their pay cannot cover costs such as childcare, rent, and food. Jobs which do not pay enough to full-time workers to meet basic needs can be considered a form of violence. Pay disparities create unequal access to resources for some gendered workers. Women are most likely to be single heads of households and work in low-wage service sector jobs creating a population of families, especially children, who live in a never-ending cycle of poverty and/or violence.

8.6.3.1 Slow Violence

Living in inner city areas without access to healthy, affordable foods, known as food deserts, is common for those in poverty. Families, mostly children, grow up malnourished, which causes long-term health consequences, difficulty learning, and poor overall income prospects.

Unlike a terrorist or mass-shooting event where violent actions are quick to cause effect, slow violence refers to the sometimes invisible difficulties people face which are deeply embedded in the structures of society. Slow violence is the cycle of an individual growing up with long-term exposure to personal violence and/or environmental toxins. There are also a lack of resources to advance their education or access healthcare, which then negatively impacts their standard of living in society. People facing these circumstances find it difficult to obtain employment, change jobs, or escape harmful circumstances. Societal and environmental risk factors have continued negative impacts over a long period of time, even across generations.

8.6.3.2 Structural Violence

Systemic inequities such as the incarceration of Black males at a higher rate than other races and immigrant populations’ struggle to obtain healthcare are what sociologists call structural violence. Building off of the 1964 Civil Rights Act, the Supreme court found in 2021 that gays and transgender workers are protected from discrimination. Though, as of 2022, only 12 states have laws specifically designated to protect transgender workers from discrimination (World Population Review N.d.). Even with these protections, discrimination occurs every day in both big and small ways. Structural violence differs from slow violence in that structural violence is more of a recognition of the pervasive inequalities in the structures of society, such as politics, economics, and the legal system.

In one town in the United States, toxic drinking water sickened dozens of people, and at least a dozen died. The Flint Water crisis started in early 2014 when the city changed water sources to save money. Community members received little response to urgent complaints about water quality. Early in 2016, after battles between politicians, medical professionals, city employees, government agencies, and community members, a conclusive report found that the water was indeed toxic and most likely caused deadly illness. The community’s population most negatively affected was 57% Black and 41% living below the poverty line (Martinez 2016). This group of people did not have the financial, educational, or social resources to move residences or obtain employment elsewhere to escape the known problem of toxic water.