Gender socialization includes the expectation that norms of self-presentation should be aligned with our assigned gender. Society expects women to be pretty, long-haired, and so forth, whereas men are expected to be strong, masculine, and the like. Whether they are cisgender or transgender, some people are most comfortable when their gender expression aligns with normative expectations of their gender. Others are more comfortable with nonconforming or transgressive gender expressions. Many are comfortable somewhere in between. How do you express your gender identity?

Gender expression is the way our gender identity is expressed outwardly through clothing, personal grooming, self-adornment, physical posture and gestures, and other elements of self-presentation. Recalling theories of identity development, we can think of gender expression as beginning when people internalize their identity and are aware enough to present it externally to society.

Some people often have strong reactions to transgressive gender expression. Gender policing is the act of imposing or enforcing normative gender expressions on someone who is perceived to be not adequately performing those gender norms via their appearance or behavior based on their sex assigned at birth.

Interestingly, parents open to gender-nonconforming behavior still discouraged femininity to protect their children from social disapproval. As this example illustrates, the fear of social disapproval stems from a culture that defines masculinity in opposition to femininity. Let’s look at these expectations independently and at gender expressions that fall somewhere between those binaries.

Masculinities

Masculinity involves the performance of gender shaped by society’s expectations for men. Parents of young boys express concern over their children’s participation in “feminine” activities such as wearing pink, dressing up in feminine attire, or wearing nail polish (Kane 2006). In Emily Kane’s (she/her) research, parents assumed “feminine” behaviors were inappropriate for boys outside of learning to cook and clean. They often expressed distress to boys who exhibited these traits. Indeed, much of what it means to be masculine is about affirming that a boy or man is not feminine.

In her 1987 foundational text Gender & Power, Raewyn Connell (she/her), a sociologist and transgender woman, introduces the idea that there are multiple masculinities. Forms of masculinity that are generally valued and perceived as socially acceptable in the dominant culture can be highly constraining to men, according to Connell. Hegemonic masculinity is the masculine ideal commonly viewed as superior to any other kind of masculinity and any form of femininity (Connell 1987; Connell & Messerschmidt 2005). Hegemony is the influence or authority held by members of a dominant group over others. Characteristics and behaviors associated with this ideal standard of masculinity may change over time (Connell 1987, 1995). However, the dominant culture continues to emphasize masculinity that aligns with characteristics of independence, aggression, competition, and toughness (figure 2.14).

Some scholars discuss an even more extreme form of hegemonic masculinity as toxic masculinity. The term toxic masculinity captures the cultural pressures on men to conform to hegemonic masculinity. Men may engage in risky behaviors to achieve the culturally approved standards of manhood that exhibit toughness, reject anything feminine, and prioritize power and status (Thompson & Pleck 1986).

Masculinities research includes various forms and styles of masculinity, different ways scholars use the concept of hegemonic masculinity, female masculinities, and how power and masculinity intertwine through the lens of globalization.

Femininities

On the flip side of masculinity is femininity. Expressions of femininity include nurturing, caring, emotional, softness, prettiness, and smallness. Sociologists refer to this type of gender expression as emphasized femininity, idealized femininity, or traditional femininity. Emphasized femininity are expressions of femininity that emphasize women’s subordination by accommodating the interests and desires of men. These hegemonic femininities hold power in patriarchal cultures and are rewarded with access to resources and power (Hamilton et al. 2019) (figure 2.15).

In Gender & Power, Connell also theorized emphasized femininity. Emphasized femininity is “the pattern of femininity which is given most cultural and ideological support” (Connell 1987, p. 24). It is “defined around compliance with subordination and is oriented to accommodating the interests and desires of men” (Connell 1987. p. 187). Connell argues that this version of femininity is a reaction to hegemonic masculinity, and although it has value, masculinity at large is still perceived as more highly valued.

This does not mean that women and other people whose gender expression is feminine are automatically aligning themselves with the patriarchy. Many women, gay men, and trans people who identify as feminists take pleasure in femininity and feel empowered by a feminine gender expression (Lerum 2015). Chapter Three will discuss specific queer gender expressions that sometimes repurpose traditional binary gender expressions.

There are also subordinate femininities that do not embody the qualities of emphasized femininity. Sociologist Patricia Hill Collins (she/her) (1990) extends Connell’s theory of femininity with an intersectional lens. She argues that hegemonic femininity is based on race, class, and gender. For example, the hyper-sexualized stereotypes about Black, Latina, and Asian women, as well as idealized standards about hair and skin color, privilege the femininity of wealthy White women over the femininity of women of the global majority. Additionally, hegemonic femininity favors a youthful and pampered appearance that may be unattainable for many poor and working-class women. We will define and explore more about intersectionality in Chapter Five.

Alternative femininities intentionally reject emphasized femininity (figure 2.16). While men’s expression of gender is routinely subjected to gender policing, women often have more freedom and are sometimes rewarded for gender expression that includes masculine elements. A “tomboy” (a girl who acts masculine) is usually regarded more positively than a “sissy” (a boy who acts feminine). Kane found that parents are nervous about boys’ expressions of femininity and discouraged feminine practices, but they expressed delight in their girls’ gender-nonconforming behavior and even encouraged participation in traditionally male activities such as T-ball, football, and using tools (Kane 2006, pp. 156-7). This does not mean that women are free of gender policing completely. Instead, the approval reflects how masculinity is more valued in a patriarchal society. Women are simply tapping into characteristics that are valued and rewarded.

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Have you ever wondered why pink tools are marketed to women (figure 2.17)? Women’s participation in masculine activities requires balance to achieve social acceptance in the face of gender policing. The expectation that women learn to balance their interest in masculine activities and traits with feminine gender expression is called the feminine apologetic (Wade & Ferree 2015). Another example is how women athletes may make extra efforts to affirm femininity while displaying aggression and competency in activities considered masculine (Davis-Delano et al. 2009). The feminine apologetic strategy enables women to gain benefits that come with participation in masculinity without attracting violent gender policing (Hardy 2013).

Beyond the Binary

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Trans people may express gender in any of the ways that cisgender people do. Many trans people also experience pressure to “pass.” Passing requires binary gender expression that is so “flawless” that a person’s trans identity cannot be detected (figure 2.18). Can you see how this adds another layer of complexity to gender expression? Some trans people consciously resist the social pressure to pass and deliberately focus on cultivating nonbinary gender expressions that feel authentic and align with their gender identity. In doing this, they also challenge and expand gender norms.

Whether cisgender or trans, many people express gender in ways that fall somewhere in the middle or outside of binary gender norms. Many women work in traditionally masculine jobs, many others are more comfortable in clothing that is less “girly,” and some avoid makeup and elaborate jewelry. Is their claim to womanhood less authentic than highly emphasized femininity?

Binary social constructions offer only two mutually exclusive categories. When gender expression is restricted to a false binary, masculinity only has meaning as the opposite of femininity. Binary thinking works strategically so that the dominant groups in society are associated with more valued traits, while the subordinate groups, defined as their opposites, are always associated with less valued traits. The poles in a binary system define one another and only make sense in the presence of their opposites.

In reality, gender identity and expression are complex and multi-faceted. When we acknowledge the complexity of gender and expand our understanding of gender to include nonbinary, genderfluid, and transgender expressions, we make room for a fuller and fairer human experience of both sex and gender for all of us.

Let’s Review

Licenses and Attributions for Gender Expression

Open Content, Original

“Gender Expression” by Hiedi Ebensen and Nora Karena is licensed under CC BY 4.0.

“Looking Through the Lens: Barbie and the Deconstruction of Gender” by Nora Karena is licensed under CC BY 4.0.

“Gender Expression Question Set” was created by ChatGPT and is not subject to copyright. Edits for relevance, alignment, and meaningful answer feedback by Colleen Sanders are licensed under CC BY 4.0.

Open Content, Shared Previously

Figure 2.15. Photo by David Gari is shared under the Pexels License.

Figure 2.16. “Weightlifting girls’ 63 kg at the 2018 Summer Youth Olympics in Buenos Aires on 12 October 2018. Snatch.” by Martin Rulsch is licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0.

All Rights Reserved Content

“Gender dysphoria” definition from the American Psychiatric Association (2022) is included under fair use.

“Hegemonic masculinity” definition from Connell (1987) and Connell & Messerschmidt (2005) is included under fair use.

“Misgendering” definition from Kapusta (2016) is included under fair use.

Figure 2.14. Image © Gillette is included under fair use.

Figure 2.17. “All Purpose Household Pink Tool Kit Review” by JennyKnits Reviews is licensed under the Standard YouTube License.

Figure 2.18. “Why ‘Passing Privilege’ Is A Problem In The Trans Community | Queer 2.0 | NBC News” by NBC News is licensed under the Standard YouTube License.

Figure 2.19. “America Ferrera’s Iconic Barbie Speech | Barbie | Max” by Max is licensed under the Standard YouTube License.