9.1 Academic Writing
Stevy Scarbrough
Learning Objectives
Upon completion of this reading, you will be able to:
- Analyze Assignment Tasks Effectively
- Plan and Structure Assignments Strategically
- Employ Academic Writing Conventions
- Develop and Articulate a Clear Thesis Statement
- Construct Well-Organized Paragraphs
- Paraphrase and Synthesize Information Appropriately
Assignments are a common method of assessment at university and require careful planning and good quality research. Developing critical thinking and writing skills are also necessary to demonstrate your ability to understand and apply information about your topic. It is not uncommon to be unsure about the processes of writing assignments at university.
- You may be returning to study after a break
- You may have come from an exam based assessment system and never written an assignment before
- Maybe you have written assignments but would like to improve your processes and strategies
This chapter has a collection of resources that will provide you with the skills and strategies to understand assignment requirements and effectively plan, research, write and edit your assignments. It begins with an explanation of how to analyse an assignment task and start putting your ideas together. It continues by breaking down the components of academic writing and exploring the elements you will need to master in your written assignments. This is followed by a discussion of paraphrasing and synthesis, and how you can use these strategies to create a strong, written argument. The chapter concludes with useful checklists for editing and proofreading to help you get the best possible mark for your work.
Task Analysis and Deconstructing an Assignment
It is important that before you begin researching and writing your assignments you spend sufficient time understanding all the requirements. This will help make your research process more efficient and effective. Check your subject information such as task sheets, criteria sheets and any additional information that may be in your subject portal online. Seek clarification from your lecturer or tutor if you are still unsure about how to begin your assignments.
The task sheet typically provides key information about an assessment including the assignment question. It can be helpful to scan this document for topic, task and limiting words to ensure that you fully understand the concepts you are required to research, how to approach the assignment, and the scope of the task you have been set. These words can typically be found in your assignment question and are outlined in more detail in the two tables below (see Table 9.1 and Table 9.2).
| Topic words | These are words and concepts you have to research and write about. |
| Task words | These will tell you how to approach the assignment and structure the information you find in your research (e.g., discuss, analyse). |
| Limiting words | These words define the scope of the assignment, e.g., Australian perspectives, relevant codes or standards or a specific timeframe. |
Make sure you have a clear understanding of what the task word requires you to address.
| Task word | Definition | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Account for | Give reasons for or explain why something has occurred. This task directs you to consider contributing factors to a certain situation or event. You are expected to make a decision about why these occurred, not just describe the events. | Account for the factors that led to the global financial crisis. |
| Analyze | Consider the different elements of a concept, statement or situation. Show the different components and show how they connect or relate. Your structure and argument should be logical and methodical. | Analyze the political, social and economic impacts of climate change. |
| Assess | Make a judgement on a topic or idea. Consider its reliability, truth and usefulness. In your judgement, consider both the strengths and weaknesses of the opposing arguments to determine your topic’s worth (similar to evaluate). | Assess the efficacy of cogitative behavioral therapy (CBT) for the treatment of depression. |
| Classify | Divide your topic into categories or sub-topics logically (could possibly be part of a more complex task). | Classify the artists studied this semester according to the artistic periods they best represent. Then choose one artist and evaluate their impact on future artists. |
| Comment on | State your opinion on an issue or idea. You may explain the issue or idea in more detail. Be objective and support your opinion with reliable evidence. | Comment on the government’s proposal to legalize safe injecting rooms. |
| Compare OR Compare and contrast | Show the similarities and differences between two or more ideas, theories, systems, arguments or events. You are expected to provide a balanced response, highlighting similarities and differences. | Compare the efficiency of wind and solar power generation for a construction site. |
| Contrast | Point out only the differences between two or more ideas, theories, systems, arguments or events. | Contrast virtue ethics and utilitarianism as models for ethical decision making. |
| Critically (this is often used with another task word, e.g. critically evaluate, critically analyze, critically discuss) | It does not mean to criticize, instead you are required to give a balanced account, highlighting strengths and weaknesses about the topic. Your overall judgment must be supported by reliable evidence and your interpretation of that evidence. | Critically analyze the impacts of mental health on recidivism within youth justice. |
| Define | Provide a precise meaning of a concept. You may need to include the limits or scope of the concept within a given context. | Define digital disruption as it relates to productivity. |
| Describe | Provide a thorough description, emphasizing the most important points. Use words to show appearance, function, process, events or systems. You are not required to make judgements. | Describe the pathophysiology of Asthma. |
| Distinguish | Highlight the differences between two (possibly confusing) items. | Distinguish between exothermic and endothermic reactions. |
| Discuss | Provide an analysis of a topic. Use evidence to support your argument. Be logical and include different perspectives on the topic (This requires more than a description). | Discuss how Bronfenbrenner’s ecological system’s theory applies to adolescence. |
| Evaluate | Review both positive and negative aspects of a topic. You may need to provide an overall judgement regarding the value or usefulness of the topic. Evidence (referencing) must be included to support your writing. | Evaluate the impact of inclusive early childhood education programs on subsequent high school completion rates for First Nations students. |
| Explain | Describe and clarify the situation or topic. Depending on your discipline area and topic, this may include processes, pathways, cause and effect, impact, or outcomes. | Explain the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the film industry in Australia. |
| Illustrate | Clarify a point or argument with examples and evidence. | Illustrate how society’s attitudes to disability have changed from a medical model to a wholistic model of disability. |
| Justify | Give evidence which supports an argument or idea; show why a decision or conclusions were made. Justify may be used with other topic words, such as outline, argue. | Write a report outlining the key issues and implications of a welfare cashless debit card trial and make three recommendations for future improvements. Justify your decision-making process for the recommendations. |
| Review | A comprehensive description of the situation or topic which provides a critical analysis of the key issues. | Provide a review of Australia’s asylum policies since the Pacific Solution in 2001. |
| Summarize | An overview or brief description of a topic. (This is likely to be part of a larger assessment task.) | Summarize the process for calculating the correct load for a plane. |
The criteria sheet, also known as the marking sheet or rubric, is another important document to look at before you begin your assignment. The criteria sheet outlines how your assignment will be marked and should be used as a checklist to make sure you have included all the information required.
The task or criteria sheet will also include the:
- Due date
- Word limit (or word count)
- Referencing style and research expectations
- Formatting requirements
Preparing your ideas
Brainstorm or concept map: List possible ideas to address each part of the assignment task based on what you already know about the topic from lectures and weekly readings.
Finding appropriate information: Learn how to find scholarly information for your assignments which is
- accurate
- recent
- reliable
What is academic writing?
Academic writing tone and style
Many of the assessment pieces you prepare will require an academic writing style. This is sometimes called ‘academic tone’ or ‘academic voice’. This section will help you to identify what is required when you are writing academically. The best way to understand what academic writing looks like, is to read broadly in your discipline area. Look at how your course readings, or scholarly sources, are written. This will help you identify the language of your discipline field, as well as how other writers structure their work.
| Academic writing | Non-academic writing |
| Is clear, concise and well-structured | Is verbose and may use more words than are needed |
| Is formal. It writes numbers under twenty in full. | Writes numbers under twenty as numerals and uses symbols such as “&” instead of writing it in full |
| Is reasoned and supported (logically developed) | Uses humor (puns, sarcasm) |
| Is authoritative (writes in third person- This essay argues…) | Writes in first person (I think, I found) |
| Utilizes the language of the field/industry/subject | Uses colloquial language e.g., mate |
Thesis statements
Essays are a common form of assessment that you will likely encounter during your university studies. You should apply an academic tone and style when writing an essay, just as you would in in your other assessment pieces. One of the most important steps in writing an essay is constructing your thesis statement. A thesis statement tells the reader the purpose, argument or direction you will take to answer your assignment question. A thesis statement may not be relevant for some questions, if you are unsure check with your lecturer. The thesis statement:
- Directly relates to the task. Your thesis statement may even contain some of the key words or synonyms from the task description.
- Does more than restate the question.
- Is specific and uses precise language.
- Let’s your reader know your position or the main argument that you will support with evidence throughout your assignment.
- Usually has two parts: subject and contention.
- The subject is the key content area you will be covering.
- The contention is the position you are taking in relation to the chosen content.
Your thesis statement helps you to structure your essay. It plays a part in each key section: introduction, body and conclusion.
Planning your assignment structure
When planning and drafting assignments, it is important to consider the structure of your writing. Academic writing should have clear and logical structure and incorporate academic research to support your ideas. It can be hard to get started and at first you may feel nervous about the size of the task, this is normal. If you break your assignment into smaller pieces, it will seem more manageable as you can approach the task in sections. Refer to your brainstorm or plan. These ideas should guide your research and will also inform what you write in your draft. It is sometimes easier to draft your assignment using the 2-3-1 approach, that is, write the body paragraphs first followed by the conclusion and finally the introduction.
Writing introductions and conclusions
Clear and purposeful introductions and conclusions in assignments are fundamental to effective academic writing. Your introduction should tell the reader what is going to be covered and how you intend to approach this. Your conclusion should summarize your argument or discussion and signal to the reader that you have come to a conclusion with a final statement. These tips below are based on the requirements usually needed for an essay assignment, however, they can be applied to other assignment types.
Writing introductions
Most writing at university will require a strong and logically structured introduction. An effective introduction should provide some background or context for your assignment, clearly state your thesis and include the key points you will cover in the body of the essay in order to prove your thesis.
Usually, your introduction is approximately 10% of your total assignment word count. It is much easier to write your introduction once you have drafted your body paragraphs and conclusion, as you know what your assignment is going to be about. An effective introduction needs to inform your reader by establishing what the paper is about and provide four basic things:
- A brief background or overview of your assignment topic
- A thesis statement (see section above)
- An outline of your essay structure
- An indication of any parameters or scope that will/ will not be covered
The below example demonstrates the four different elements of an introductory paragraph.
1) Information technology is having significant effects on the communication of individuals and organisations in different professions. 2)This essay will discuss the impact of information technology on the communication of health professionals. 3) First, the provision of information technology for the educational needs of nurses will be discussed. This will be followed by an explanation of the significant effects that information technology can have on the role of general practitioner in the area of public health. Considerations will then be made regarding the lack of knowledge about the potential of computers among hospital administrators and nursing executives. The final section will explore how information technology assists health professionals in the delivery of services in rural areas. 4) It will be argued that information technology has significant potential to improve health care and medical education, but health professionals are reluctant to use it.
1) Brief background/ overview
2) Indicates the scope of what will be covered
3) Outline of the main ideas (structure)
4) The thesis statement
Note: The examples in this document are taken from the University of Canberra and used under a CC-BY-SA-3.0
Writing conclusions
You should aim to end your assignments with a strong conclusion. Your conclusion should restate your thesis and summarize the key points you have used to prove this thesis. Finish with a key point as a final impactful statement. Similar to your introduction, your conclusion should be approximately 10% of the total assignment word length. If your assessment task asks you to make recommendations, you may need to allocate more words to the conclusion or add a separate recommendations section before the conclusion. Use the checklist below to check your conclusion is doing the right job.
Conclusion Checklist
- Have you referred to the assignment question and restated your argument (or thesis statement), as outlined in the introduction?
- Have you pulled together all the threads of your essay into a logical ending and given it a sense of unity?
- Have you presented implications or recommendations in your conclusion? (if required by your task).
- Have you added to the overall quality and impact of your essay? This is your final statement about this topic; thus, a key take-away point can make a great impact on the reader.
- Remember, do not add any new material or direct quotes in your conclusion.
This below example demonstrates the different elements of a concluding paragraph.
1) It is evident, therefore, that not only do employees need to be trained for working in the Australian multicultural workplace, but managers also need to be trained. 2) Managers must ensure that effective in-house training programs are provided for migrant workers, so that they become more familiar with the English language, Australian communication norms and the Australian work culture. In addition, Australian native English speakers need to be made aware of the differing cultural values of their workmates; particularly the different forms of non-verbal communication used by other cultures. Furthermore, all employees must be provided with clear and detailed guidelines about company expectations. Above all, in order to minimise communication problems and to maintain an atmosphere of tolerance, understanding and cooperation in the multicultural workplace, managers need to have an effective knowledge about their employees. This will help employers understand how their employee’s social conditioning affects their beliefs about work. It will develop their communication skills to develop confidence and self-esteem among diverse work groups. 3) The culturally diverse Australian workplace may never be completely free of communication problems, however, further studies to identify potential problems and solutions, as well as better training in cross cultural communication for managers and employees, should result in a much more understanding and cooperative environment.
1) Reference to thesis statement – In this essay the writer has taken the position that training is required for both employees and employers.
2) Structure overview – Here the writer pulls together the main ideas in the essay.
3) Final summary statement that is based on the evidence.
Note: The examples in this document are taken from the University of Canberra and used under a CC-BY-SA-3.0
Writing paragraphs
Paragraph writing is a key skill that enables you to incorporate your academic research into your written work. Each paragraph should have its own clearly identified topic sentence or main idea which relates to the argument or point (thesis) you are developing. This idea should then be explained by additional sentences which you have paraphrased from good quality sources and referenced according to the recommended guidelines of your subject. Paragraphs are characterized by increasing specificity; that is, they move from the general to the specific, increasingly refining the reader’s understanding. A common structure for paragraphs in academic writing is as follows.
Topic Sentence
This is the main idea of the paragraph and should relate to the overall issue or purpose of your assignment is addressing. Often it will be expressed as an assertion or claim which supports the overall argument or purpose of your writing.
Explanation/ Elaboration
The main idea must have its meaning explained and elaborated upon. Think critically, do not just describe the idea.
Evidence
These explanations must include evidence to support your main idea. This information should be paraphrased and referenced according to the appropriate referencing style of your course.
Concluding sentence (critical thinking)
This should explain why the topic of the paragraph is relevant to the assignment question and link to the following paragraph.
Paragraph checklist
- Does your paragraph have a clear main idea?
- Is everything in the paragraph related to this main idea?
- Is the main idea adequately developed and explained?
- Do your sentences run together smoothly?
- Have you included evidence to support your ideas?
- Have you concluded the paragraph by connecting it to your overall topic?
Writing sentences
Make sure all the sentences in your paragraphs make sense. Each sentence must contain a verb to be a complete sentence. Avoid sentence fragments. These are incomplete sentences or ideas that are unfinished and create confusion for your reader. Avoid also run on sentences. This happens when you join two ideas or clauses without using the appropriate punctuation. This also confuses your meaning.
Use transitions (linking words and phrases) to connect your ideas between paragraphs and make your writing flow. The order that you structure the ideas in your assignment should reflect the structure you have outlined in your introduction.
| For continuing an idea | For providing a contrast view | For showing cause and effect | For showing sequence | For concluding | For restating a point or giving an example |
| Additionally… In addition… Moreover… Because… Consequently… Clearly, then… Furthermore… In the same way… Continuing this idea… Also… Pursuing this further… |
In contrast to these… Unlike the previous example… Different from this… Despite these findings… Contrary to these findings… In opposition to… Nevertheless… |
Following… In response to… Therefore… As a result of… For this reason… Thus… Due to this… Consequently… The reaction… |
The first [concept/aspect]… The second [concept/aspect]… The third [concept/aspect]… Firstly, Secondly, Finally… After…Afterwards… As soon as… In the first place… In the meantime… Later… Meanwhile… Next… |
Therefore… This… Hence… In final analysis… In conclusion… In final consideration… Indeed |
In other words… Specifically… For instance… One such occurrence… This is demonstrated by… To illustrate… Also… To demonstrate… This is supported by… |
Paraphrasing and Synthesizing
Paraphrasing and synthesizing are powerful tools that you can use to support the main idea of a paragraph. It is likely that you will regularly use these skills at university to incorporate evidence into explanatory sentences and strengthen your essay. It is important to paraphrase and synthesize because:
- Paraphrasing is regarded more highly at university than direct quoting.
- Paraphrasing can also help you better understand the material.
- Paraphrasing and synthesizing demonstrate you have understood what you have read through your ability to summaries and combine arguments from the literature using your own words.
What is paraphrasing?
Paraphrasing is changing the writing of another author into your words while retaining the original meaning. You must acknowledge the original author as the source of the information in your citation. Follow the steps in the checklist below to help you build your skills in paraphrasing.
Paraphrasing Checklist
- Make sure you understand what you are reading. Look up keywords to understand their meanings.
- Record the details of the source so you will be able to cite it correctly in text and in your reference list.
- Identify words that you can change to synonyms (but do not change the key/topic words).
- Change the type of word in a sentence (for example change a noun to a verb or vice versa).
- Eliminate unnecessary words or phrases from the original that you don’t need in your paraphrase.
- Change the sentence structure (for example change a long sentence to several shorter ones or combine shorter sentences to form a longer sentence).
Example Original Text
Health care professionals assist people often when they are at their most vulnerable. To provide the best care and understand their needs, workers must demonstrate good communication skills. They must develop patient trust and provide empathy to effectively work with patients who are experiencing a variety of situations including those who may be suffering from trauma or violence, physical or mental illness or substance abuse (French & Saunders, 2018).
Paraphrase Example – Poor Quality
This is a poor example of paraphrasing. Some synonyms have been used and the order of a few words changed within the sentences however the paragraph follows the same structure as the original text.
Health care sector workers are often responsible for vulnerable patients. To understand patients and deliver good service, they need to be excellent communicators. They must establish patient rapport and show empathy if they are to successfully care for patients from a variety of backgrounds and with different medical, psychological and social needs (French & Saunders, 2018).
Paraphrase Example – Good Quality
This example demonstrates a better quality paraphrase. The author has demonstrated more understanding of the overall concept in the text by using the keywords as the basis to reconstruct the paragraph. Note how much the structure has changed from the original text.
Empathetic communication is a vital skill for health care workers. Professionals in these fields are often responsible for patients with complex medical, psychological and social needs. Empathetic communication assists in building rapport and gaining the necessary trust to assist these vulnerable patients by providing appropriate supportive care (French & Saunders, 2018).
What is synthesizing?
Synthesizing means to bring together more than one source of information to strengthen your argument. Once you have learned how to paraphrase the ideas of one source at a time, you can consider adding additional sources to support your argument. Synthesis demonstrates your understanding and ability to show connections between multiple pieces of evidence to support your ideas and is a more advanced academic thinking and writing skill.
Synthesizing Techniques Checklist
- Check your referencing guide to learn how to correctly reference more than one author at a time in your paper.
- While taking notes for your research, try organizing your notes into themes. This way you can keep similar ideas from different authors together.
- Identify similar language and tone used by authors so that you can group similar ideas together.
- Synthesis can not only be about grouping ideas together that are similar, but also those that are different. See how you can contrast authors in your writing to also strengthen your argument.
Example of Synthesis
1) There is a relationship between academic procrastination and mental health outcomes. 2) Procrastination has been found to have a negative effect on students’ well-being (Balkis, & Duru, 2016). Yerdelen, McCaffrey, and Klassens’ (2016) research results suggested that there was a positive association between procrastination and anxiety. This was corroborated by Custer’s (2018) findings which indicated that students with higher levels of procrastination also reported greater levels of the anxiety. 3) Therefore, it could be argued that procrastination is an ineffective learning strategy that leads to increased levels of distress.
1) Topic sentence
2) Statements using paraphrased evidence | Critical thinking (student voice)
3) Concluding statement – linking to topic sentence
This example demonstrates a simple synthesis. The author has developed a paragraph with one central theme and included explanatory sentences complete with in-text citations from multiple sources. A more complex synthesis may include more than one citation per sentence.
Attributions
Writing Assignments. Authored by: Kate Derrington, Cristy Bartlett, and Sara Irvine. Provided by: University of Southern Queensland. License: CC BY-SA 4.0
References
Academic Skills Centre. (2013). Writing conclusions. University of Canberra, Retrieved April 14, 2025 from https://open.unisq.edu.au/pluginfile.php/98027/mod_resource/content/1/Writing%20Conclusions.pdf
Academic Skills Centre. (2013). Writing introductions. University of Canberra, Retrieved April 14, 2025 from https://open.unisq.edu.au/pluginfile.php/98026/mod_resource/content/1/Writing%20Introductions_final.pdf
Balkis, M., & Duru, E. (2016). Procrastination, self-regulation failure, academic life satisfaction, and affective well-being: Underregulation or misregulation form. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 31(3), 439–459. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10212-015-0266-5
Custer, N. (2018). Test anxiety and academic procrastination among prelicensure nursing students. Nursing education perspectives, 39(3), 162-163. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.NEP.0000000000000291
Yerdelen, S., McCaffrey, A., & Klassen, R. M. (2016). Longitudinal examination of procrastination and anxiety, and their relation to self-efficacy for self-regulated learning: Latent growth curve modeling. Educational Sciences: Theory & Practice, 16(1). https://doi.org/10.12738/estp.2016.1.0108
