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Glossary

1 percent

the people at the top of the income and wealth distributions in the world

90/10 income inequality ratio

the wage or salary income earned by individuals earning more than 90 percent of other workers, compared to the earnings of workers earning higher than the bottom 10 percent.

achievement gap

any significant and persistent disparity in academic performance or educational attainment between groups of students with different social locations.

agency

the capacity to actively and independently choose and to affect change

agents of socialization

the significant individuals, groups, or institutions that influence our sense of self and the behaviors, norms, and values that help us function in society.

alternative movements

the mobilization of large numbers of people focused on self-improvement and limited, specific changes to individual beliefs and behavior.

anarchism

a philosophical and political tradition advocating the abolition of all or most forms of hierarchy, including the state.

anthropocene

the most recent geological epoch of time, beginning around the industrial revolution, in which humans have fundamentally transformed the living systems of the Earth.

anthropocentrism

the worldview that makes humans central to decisions about ethics and daily life. It is built from the belief that humans are the most important existence in the universe.

apartheid

a policy or system of segregation or discrimination on grounds of race

assembly line

a way for employers to increase economic efficiency by breaking the production process down to a series of small actions performed repetitively by workers.

banking model of education

a critical term for a type of education in which “knowledge is a gift bestowed by those who consider themselves knowledgeable upon those whom they consider to know nothing” (Freire 1970).

biocentrism

a philosophy that extends equal and inherent value to all living beings.

Buen Vivir

a set of ethics that balance quality of life, democracy, giving inherent value to all living things, and collective well-being.

bureaucratization stage

a phase of social movements when the movement no longer requires grassroots volunteerism: it is an established organization, typically with a paid staff.

calling

a Christian concept for work that is assigned to a person by God and that provides meaning and purpose to a person’s life.

capitalism

a type of economic and social system in which private businesses or corporations compete for profit. Goods, services, and many beings are defined as private property, and people sell their labor on the market for a wage.

civil society

the communities, groups, and organizations that function outside of government to provide support and advocacy for certain people or issues in society.

civilization mission

a perspective that frames colonized people as backward and in need of some “superior” society to intervene to improve their lives.

class conflict

the structural antagonisms built into economic relationships.

coalescence stage

a phase of social movements when people join together and organize to publicize the issue and raise awareness.

colonialism

the military, economic, and ideological conquest of one society by another. It results in one society settling among and establishing control over the indigenous people of an area.

colonies of rule

colonies governed by a relatively small population of colonial administrators, usually for the purpose of extracting resources and wealth.

colonies of settlement

colonies in which the colonial power sends a large number of its domestic population to settle the colony, thus displacing the Indigenous population.

colonization

the action or process of settling among and establishing control over the indigenous people of an area.

communism

a philosophical and economic ideology within the socialist framework that advocates for public rather than private ownership, especially of the means of production.

community

a group of people that share relationships, experiences, and a sense of meaning and belonging.

community accountability

a community-based strategy, rather than a police/prison-based strategy, to address violence within communities.

community cultural wealth

"the interdependent overlapping forms of knowledge, skills, abilities, and networks possessed and utilized by Communities of Color to survive and resist racism and other forms of subordination"

credentialism

the assumption of social superiority or inferiority based on formal educational attainment.

cultural capital

the cultural knowledge and items that help one navigate a society.

cultural hegemony

"dominance of a culturally diverse society by the ruling class that shapes the culture of that society …so that the worldview of the ruling class becomes the accepted cultural norm."

cultural lag

the period of time between the introduction of new technological developments into a culture or society and the acceptance of the developments by institutions.

cultural universal

concepts, ideas, or patterns of behavior that are common to all human cultures.

culturally responsive education

"a pedagogy that empowers students intellectually, socially, emotionally, and politically by using cultural referents to impart knowledge, skills, and attitudes."

culture

the shared beliefs, values, and practices in a group or society. It includes symbols, language, and artifacts.

de facto segregation

segregation that occurs without laws but because of other social influences.

debt regime

a system of global governance which empowers wealthy countries, through the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank, to impose economic and social policies on indebted nations.

decline stage

a phase of social movements when people fall away and adopt a new movement, the movement successfully brings about the change it sought, or when people no longer take the issue seriously.

decolonization

"the mechanism that will allow for restoration and conciliation of colonized groups who have had their power stolen."

decolonization of knowledge

the process of examining and undoing colonial ideologies that frame Western thought and practices as superior.

decolonizing education

the process of confronting and challenging the colonizing practices that have influenced education in the past, and which are still present today.

democracy

a system of government by the whole population or all the eligible members of a state, typically through elected representatives.

Digital Divide

uneven access to technology due to inequalities between different social, cultural, and economic groups; often caused by location.

doughnut economics

an economic model that balances essential human needs with planetary boundaries.

economy

a system for the production, distribution, and consumption of the goods and services within a society.

education debt

the cumulative impact of directing social-political harm toward students of color, including allotting fewer resources toward their education.

emergence stage

a phase of social movements when people become aware of an issue and leaders emerge.

enculturation

the gradual process of an individual or group adapting to the norms and values of a culture in which they are immersed

environmental inequity

the fact that low-income people and people of color are disproportionately likely to experience various environmental problems.

environmental justice

the fair treatment and meaningful involvement of all people regardless of race, color, national origin, or income, concerning the development, implementation, and enforcement of environmental laws, regulations, and policies.

environmental racism

a form of systemic racism created by policies and practices that disproportionately force communities of color to live near toxic waste and airborne matter, burdening them with health hazards.

environmental sociology

the study of the interaction between human behavior and the natural and physical environment.

environmental sustainability

the sociopolitical, scientific, and cultural practice of living within the means of the Earth without significantly impairing its function. Also: the conservation of natural resources and protection of global ecosystems to support health and wellbeing.

equilibrium model of social change

the observation that society is always in a natural state of equilibrium, defined as a state of equal balance among opposing forces.

equity lens

recognition that we do not all receive the same power and resources in society. This informs action to identify and dismantle systems of power, privilege, and oppression.

Eurocentrism

a worldview, mindset, or communication that centers White European ways of knowing as sole, central, or superior to all others.

fair trade

a movement and alternative way of trading goods that emerged to respond to the negative economic effects of globalization on people in poorer nations. It means buying goods at a fair price from people who produce them.

feminist theology

the study of the nature of God and religious belief which centers the religious and spiritual experiences of women.

feminization of poverty

the longstanding trend in almost all societies, for women to have higher rates of poverty than men.

forced cultural assimilation

a process by which a community with a dominant culture forces members of other groups to adopt their language, national identity, norms, customs, values, ideology, and way of life.

foreign assistance

aid given by a national government to countries in need.

frontier ethic

a worldview that assumes that the earth has an unlimited supply of resources. If resources run out in one area, more can be found elsewhere or alternatively, human ingenuity will find substitutes.

fundamentalism

A religious movement that requires a strict and typically literal interpretation of core texts and adherence to traditional beliefs, doctrines, and rituals.

gender based violence

violence directed against a person because of his or her gender and expectations of his or her role in a society or culture.

general strike

a strike of all workers within a society, not just the workers at one workplace or in one industry.

genocide

the systematic and widespread extermination of a cultural, ethnic, political, racial, or religious group.

Genuine Progress Indicator (GPI)

a tool that holistically measures our collective, socioeconomic welfare by including overlooked social and environmental costs and benefits to economic activity.

global stratification

the unequal distribution of economic and social resources among the world's countries.

globalization

the growing interdependence of the world’s economies, cultures, and populations due to cross-national exchanges of goods and services, technology, investments, people, ideas, and information.

government

the institution by which a society organizes itself and allocates authority to accomplish collective goals and provide benefits that a society needs.

Green Revolution

an initiative to increase the global food supply and reduce world hunger by the use of chemicals and engineered crop varieties.

gross domestic product (GDP)

the total value of all goods and services produced by a nation’s citizens.

Gross National Happiness (GNH)

a philosophy that guides the government of Bhutan. It includes an index used to measure the collective happiness and well-being of a population.

gross national income (GNI)

the total amount of money earned by a nation’s people and businesses. It is used to measure and track a nation’s wealth from year to year.

health

the extent of a person’s physical, mental, and social well-being.

healthcare

the system of norms, rules, and organizations established to provide medical services.

hidden curriculum

the implicit social and cultural expectations, designed by dominant culture, that inform the educational process.

historical materialism

a perspective that emphasizes the economy in explaining just about everything in society, and sees economic class conflicts as main drivers of social change and progress.

holiness code

a set of core laws or principles that define the key ideas for that organization.

human capital flight

emigration of highly trained or intelligent people from a particular country.

Human Development Index (HDI)

a measure that combines a nation’s GDP with many other important quality of life considerations such as life expectancy, security, literacy, and the effects of environmental degradation people experience.

humanitarian aid

aid to alleviate suffering and mitigate the effects of disaster provided by governments and non-governmental organizations for a short-term period until longer-term help can be provided by local governments or other institutions.

imperialism

the practice of a nation forcefully imposing its rule or authority over other nations

inclusion

the laws and practices that requires disabled students be included in mainstream classes - not separate rooms or schools.

indigenization

a process of making Indigenous knowledge systems evident, prevalent, and available.

inequity

differences in access to resources or opportunity between groups that are the result of treatment by a more powerful group; this creates circumstances that are unnecessary, avoidable, and unfair.

institutionalized violence

a form of violence in which some social structure or social institution may harm people by preventing them from meeting their basic needs.

institutions

large-scale social arrangement that is stable and predictable, created and maintained to serve the needs of society.

international development

the government agencies, non-governmental organizations, philanthropic private businesses, individuals, and their actions, working to address poverty and inequality at a global scale.

International Poverty Line

the amount of money a person needs to consume or earn per day to avoid living in extreme poverty.

intersectionality

the idea that inequalities produced by multiple and interconnected social characteristics can influence the life of an individual or group. This suggests that we should view gender, race, class, or sexuality not as individual characteristics but as interconnected social situations.

interspirituality

the idea that beneath the diversity of theological beliefs, rites, and observances lies a deeper unity of experience that is our shared spiritual heritage.

land grabs

land acquisitions that are in violation of human rights, without prior consent of the preexisting land users, and with no consideration of the social and environmental impacts.

liberation theology movement

a religious movement that combines Christian principles with political activism to enact social change.

life expectancy

a statistical estimate based on averages, of the number of years a person can expect to live in a certain region.

localization

a process of decentralization—shifting economic activity into the hands of millions of small and medium-sized businesses instead of concentrating it in mega-corporations.

measures

figures, extents, or amounts of phenomena that we are investigating.

medical sociology

the study of how humans manage issues of health and illness, disease and disorders, and healthcare for both the sick and the healthy.

modernization

a complex set of changes that take place in societies that move from traditional to modern practices as their economies become industrialized.

Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI)

an indicator which measures severe poverty across low-income countries with three dimensions: health, education, and standard of living.

neocolonialism

a newer form of colonialism in which colonial powers maintain their economic and political dominance over former colonies through debt, trade agreements and corporate influence but without formal political control.

neoliberalism

a political and economic ideology that emphasizes free trade, benefits of globalization, and a minimal government role in the economy, including spending.

normalization

a process that constructs specific behaviors, presentations, and ideas as the idealized norm through correction.

norms

the informal rules that govern behavior in groups and societies.

oppression

the systemic and extensive nature of social inequity and harm woven throughout social institutions as well as embedded within individual consciousness.

patriarchy

a society, system, or group in which men dominate women and have the power and authority.

Protestant ethic

a set of cultural and religious beliefs that value hard work, thrift, and efficiency in one's worldly calling. It was theorized by Max Weber to have laid the groundwork for the rise of capitalism in modern Western society.

racial bias

preconceived beliefs, attitudes, and expectations about racial group members.

redemptive movements

mobilization of large numbers of people who are “meaning-seeking.” Their goal is to provoke inner change or spiritual growth in individuals.

redlining

the discriminatory practice of refusing loans to creditworthy applicants in neighborhoods that banks deem undesirable.

reform movements

mobilization of large numbers of people who seek to change something specific about the social structure.

religion

a communally organized and persistent set of beliefs, practices, and relationships that meet social needs and organizes social life.

religious syncretism

the process by which the beliefs and practices of one religion are fused with or assimilated into another spiritual belief system.

resistance movements

mobilization of large numbers of people that seek to prevent or undo change to the social structure.

resource mobilization theory

a perspective that explains social movements’ success in terms of their ability to acquire resources and mobilize individuals (3e)

revolutionary movements

mobilization of large numbers of people that seek to completely change every aspect of society.

roles

patterns of behavior that we recognize in each other that are representative of a person’s social status.

segregation

the physical separation of two groups, particularly in residence, but also in workplace and social functions.

social capital

the social networks or connections that an individual has available to them due to group membership.

social change

transformations in human interactions and relationships that transform cultural and social institutions.

social class

the set of people who share similar social circumstances based on factors like wealth, income, education, family background, and occupation.

social control

a way to regulate, enforce, and encourage conformity to norms both formally and informally.

social facts

the laws, morals, values, religious beliefs, customs, fashions, rituals, and cultural rules that govern social life.

social identity

the set of characteristics by which a person is recognizable or known by the society in which they live.

social inequality

the unequal distribution of valued resources, rewards, and positions in societies.

social justice

a state where "everyone has fair access to the resources and opportunities to develop their full capacities, and everyone is welcome to participate democratically with others to mutually shape social policies and institutions that govern civic life.”

social location

the social position an individual holds within their society. It is based upon social characteristics of social class, gender, sexual orientation, ethnicity, race, and religion and other characteristics that society deems important.

social mobility

an individual’s or group’s (e.g., family) movement through the class hierarchy due to changes in income, occupation, or wealth.

social movements

the mobilization of large numbers of people to work together to achieve a social goal or address a social problem.

social status

the rank, honor, or prestige attached to one’s position in society or a group.

social stratification

the categorization of its people into rankings based on factors of power, access and resources, (such as wealth, income, education, or occupation) as well as social identities (like, race, ethnicity, or gender).

social structure

the complex and stable framework of society that influences all individuals or groups. This influence occurs through the relationship between institutions and social practices.

socialism

an economic system in which the means of production and natural resources are collectively owned, usually controlled by the government.

socialization

the lifelong process of an individual or group learning the expected norms and customs of a group or society through social interaction.

socialized medicine

a healthcare system that is owned and run by the government

socioeconomic status

a combination of a person's or family's economic and social position in comparison to others.

sociology

a science guided by the understanding that the social matters: our lives are affected, not only by our individual characteristics but by our place in the social world, not only by natural forces but by their social dimension.

spiritual belief system

a series of related beliefs and practices of a society that help members seek and express meaning and purpose.

spirituality

the aspect of humanity that refers to the way individuals seek and express meaning and purpose and the way they experience their connectedness to the moment, to self, to others, to nature, and to the significant or sacred.

stigmatization

the labeling or spoiling of an identity, which leads to ostracism, marginalization, discrimination, and abuse.to the extent that it is criminalized.

strike

a form of collective action when workers in a given workplace refuse to work until owners meet their demands.

structural racism

the system of racial bias that exists across institutions and society.

subaltern groups

groups that are made subordinate by powerful groups because of their class, caste, gender, nationality, or any other dimension of difference.

system

a group of two or more related parts that interact over time to form a whole that has a purpose, function, or behavior.

The Capitalocene

the geological epoch in which capitalism has reordered Earth’s natural systems.

the global majority

Black, Indigenous, and other people of color and typically (though not all) with origins in Africa, Central and South America, and Asia who constitute approximately 85 percent of the global population.

the New Deal

a series of government initiatives under Franklin D. Roosevelt’s presidency, during the Great Depression. They focused on strengthening the economy by employing workers for public works and creating a social safety net with programs such as social security.

theocratic government

one where religious leaders rule in the name of God or gods who interpret their holy texts as law.

tracking

a formalized sorting system that places students on “tracks” (advanced versus low achievers) that perpetuate inequalities.

Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK)

the wisdom and intelligence, innovations, and practices of indigenous and local communities that have been handed down through generations. TEK focuses on the relationship of living beings with one another and with their environment.

transformative justice

a political framework and approach for responding to violence, harm, and abuse. It seeks to respond to violence through harm reduction, or without creating more violence.

union

an organization of workers who work together to improve their wages and working conditions.

universal healthcare

a system that guarantees healthcare coverage for everyone.

wealth

the financial assets or physical possessions which can be converted into a form that can be used for transactions.

white man’s burden

a framework for interpreting colonial expansion - framing colonized people as simultaneously childlike and dangerous, while framing agents of colonial power as stern and wise parents.

white supremacy

the belief, theory, or doctrine that white people are inherently superior to people from all other racial and ethnic groups, and are therefore rightfully the dominant group in any society.

worldview

a particular philosophy of life or conception of the world or universe held by an individual or group.

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