There is a complexity to the role of religions and spiritual belief systems in social change. Early sociological perspectives introduced the ways that humans construct what is sacred, noting that through symbols we share meaning and thus common belief. They introduced religion as a stabilizer and unifier of societies. Religion is also seen as a tool used in capitalist societies to perpetuate inequality and resist social change. More contemporary sociological perspectives are concerned with social roles and experiences based on gender and the importance of representing racial diversity and non-binary identities.

Religious beliefs and organizations can justify inhumane systems such as slavery, sustain racist beliefs, and uphold colonialist practices. They can support gender-based violence, repress expressions of gender and sexuality, and reinforce harmful dominion over the earth. At the same time, because religion and spirituality wrestle with deep questions of meaning, they hold core tenets that encourage the well-being of the Earth and all humans. They often but not always can offer beliefs and practices that provide a foundation for social resilience and resistance against unjust systems.

We began this chapter on the banks of rivers, beloved for both their life-supporting and spiritual importance. We wrote about committed efforts by communities to legally acknowledge the personhood of rivers and their rights to flow freely. The transformative visions for actions like these are often sustained by religious and spiritual beliefs that uphold the interconnectedness of all life, human and non-human alike. In this way, religion and spiritual belief systems can be a tremendous force for social change.

Review of Learning Outcomes

This chapter has offered you the opportunity to:

• Explain the relationship between religion, spiritual belief systems, and power.
• Compare and contrast how early sociologists explained religion and spiritual belief systems in society.
• Discuss how the contemporary feminist, critical race, and queer sociological perspectives view religion and spiritual belief systems in society.
• Describe how religion and spiritual belief systems can be used as a tool of oppression or to support social justice.
• Explain how religion and spiritual belief systems play a role in addressing our climate crisis.

Key Terms

anthropocentrism: the worldview that makes humans central to decisions about ethics and daily life. It is built from the belief that humans are the most important existence in the universe.

fundamentalism: a religious movement that requires a strict and typically literal interpretation of core texts and adherence to traditional beliefs, doctrines, and rituals.

feminist theology: the study of the nature of God and religious belief which centers the religious and spiritual experiences of women.

gender-based violence: harmful acts directed against a person because of their gender and expectations of their role in a society or culture (The United Nations Refugee Agency n.d.).

holiness code: a set of core laws or principles that define the key ideas for that organization.

institutionalized violence: a form of violence in which some social structure or social institution may harm people by preventing them from meeting their basic needs.

interspirituality: the idea that “beneath the diversity of theological beliefs, rites, and observances lies a deeper unity of experience that is our shared spiritual heritage” (Teasdale 2003).

liberation theology movement: a religious movement that combines Christian principles with political activism to enact social change.

religion: a communally organized and persistent set of beliefs, practices, and relationships that meet social needs and organize social life.

religious syncretism: the process by which the beliefs and practices of one religion are fused with or assimilated into another spiritual belief system.

social control: a way to regulate, enforce, and encourage conformity to norms both formally and informally.

spiritual belief system: a series of related beliefs and practices of a society that help members seek and express meaning and purpose.

spirituality: “the aspect of humanity that refers to the way individuals seek and express meaning and purpose and the way they experience their connectedness to the moment, to self, to others, to nature, and to the significant or sacred” (Puchalski et al. 2014).

theocratic government: a form of state leadership where religious leaders rule in the name of God or gods and interpret their holy texts as law.

Comprehension Check

Licenses and Attributions for Conclusion

Open Content, Original

“Conclusion” by Kimberly Puttman is licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0.

“Comprehension Check” was created by Veronica Vold and Michelle Culley for Open Oregon Educational Resources and is licensed CC BY 4.0.

Open Content, Shared Previously

Key term, fundamentalism, is taken from Open Education Sociology Dictionary, licensed under CC BY 4.0.

Key term, liberation theology movement, is adapted from Open Education Sociology Dictionary, licensed under CC BY 4.0.

Key term, social control, is adapted from Open Education Sociology Dictionary, licensed under CC BY 4.0.