11.8 Conclusion
Since 2000, when the U.S. Census allowed people to select more than one racial category, an increasing number of Americans choose two or more categories to describe themselves (Parker et. al 2015). Our multiracial population is on the rise in part because there is an opportunity for Americans to select identities that reflect their experiences and we are seeing a rise in multiracial infants which demographers predict will continue to grow. How will people navigate several racial and ethnic identities simultaneously?
As we become more multiracial, will we continue to see prejudice and discrimination? A study by the Pew Research center suggests that it is likely. Currently over half of multiracial Americans report being subjected to racial slurs or jokes (Parker et al. 2015). Figure 11.10 reflects some of the ways multiracial adults experience racial discrimination. In addition to acts of discimination such as hearing racial slurs or receiving poor service, many Americans identify ways that discimination is systemic. Being unfairly stopped by police continues to be indicative of the larger issue of institutionalized racism. Consider what you’ve learned about racialized organizations in this chapter. How might experiences of discrimination continue effect housing practices and access to healthcare?
11.8.1 Review of Learning Objectives
Through this chapter you’ve explored the social construction of race and ethnicity. You learned to think about groups in terms of their relation to power dynamics. By examining historical and contemporary theories of race, you are able to better understand how racial inequalities persist. As the housing crisis and health disparities indicate ways that race is embedded in our social institutions and greatly impacts life chances.
11.8.2 Additional Resources
- Multiracial American Voices: Being Multiracial – Pew Research Center [YouTube]
- W. E. B. Du Bois and race conflict https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-wny0OAz3g8
- Du Bois double consciousness and two-ness https://www.npr.org/transcripts/496882534
- Stages of racial identity development explained: https://www.mccc.edu/pdf/cmn214/Class%203/Racial%20identity%20development.pdf
- Racial identity facilitator guide https://www.uua.org/files/documents/gardinerwilliam/whiteness/racial_identity_dev_facilitators.pdf
- Racial identity development https://www.mccc.edu/pdf/cmn214/Class%203/Racial%20identity%20development.pdf
11.8.3 Key Terms
Amalgamation: process by which a minority group and a majority group combine to form a new group. Amalgamation creates the classic “melting pot” analogy in which there is a combination of cultures that results in a new culture entirely.
Antiracist: active process of identifying and eliminating racism by changing systems, organizational structures, policies, and practices and attitudes, so that power is redistributed and shared equitably.
Assimilation: the process by which a minority individual or group gives up its own identity by taking on the characteristics of the dominant culture.
Colorblindness: color-blind racism, is a form of racism that is hidden and embedded in our social institutions. The notion that one “does not see color” is problematic and serves to erase experiences of racial and ethnic minority groups
Discrimination: actions against a group of people. Discrimination can be based on race, ethnicity, age, religion, health, and other categories.
Dominant group: group that holds the most power in a given society, while subordinate groups are those who lack power compared to the dominant group
Double consciousness: concept developed by W.E.B. Du Bois referring to a sense of “twoness” experienced by African-Americans because of their racialized oppression and devaluation in a white-dominated society
Ethnicity: categories of difference organized around shared language, culture and faith tradition.
Expulsion: subordinate group being forced, by a dominant group, to leave a certain area or country.
Genocide: deliberate annihilation of a targeted (usually subordinate) group, is the most toxic intergroup relationship.
Implicit bias: (also referred to as unconscious bias); the process of associating stereotypes or attitudes towards categories of people without conscious awareness
Institutional racism: involves systems and structures that have procedures or processes that disadvantages racial minority groups
Minority group: any group of people who, because of their physical or cultural characteristics, are singled out from the others in the society in which they live for differential and unequal treatment, and who therefore regard themselves as objects of collective discrimination
Pluralism: represented by the ideal of the United States as a “salad bowl”: a great mixture of different cultures where each culture retains its own identity and yet adds to the flavor of the whole.
Prejudice: the beliefs, thoughts, feelings, and attitudes someone holds about a group. A prejudice is not based on personal experience; instead, it is a prejudgment, originating outside actual experience.
Race: category of identity that ascribes social, cultural and political meaning and consequence to physical characteristics
Racial formation: points to how what we define as race varies and changes as political, economic, and historical contexts
Racialized organizations: theory that explains how organizations are not race-neutral. In this theory racialized organizations are seen as enhancing or diminishing the agency of racial groups
Racial profiling: type of systemic racism involves the singling out of racial minorities for differential treatment, usually harsher treatment.
Racism: type of prejudice and discrimination used to justify inequalities against individuals by maintaining that one racial category is somehow superior or inferior to others; it is a set of practices used by a racial dominant group to maximize advantages for itself by disadvantaging racial minority groups.
Redlining: discriminatory practice of refusing loans to creditworthy applicants in neighborhoods that banks deem undesirable or racially occupied.
Segregation: physical separation of two groups, particularly in residence, but also in workplace and social functions.
Social construction of race: the idea that race is more meaningful on a social level than on a biological level
Stereotype: oversimplified generalizations about groups of people. Stereotypes can be based on race, ethnicity, age, gender, sexual orientation—almost any characteristic. They may be positive (usually about one’s own group) but are often negative (usually toward other groups, such as when members of a dominant racial group suggest that a subordinate racial group is stupid or lazy)
White privilege: unearned set of social advantages available to white people; the societal privilege that benefits white people, or those perceived to be white, over non-white people in some societies, including the United States.
11.8.4 Discussion Questions
- How do you describe your ethnicity? Do you include your family’s country of origin? Do you consider yourself multiethnic? How does your ethnicity compare to that of the people you spend most of your time with?
- Select one of the theoretical perspectives discussed in this chapter. Describe the main ideas and explain how it explains racial inequality.
- Give an example of stereotyping that you see in everyday life. Explain what would need to happen for this to be eliminated.
- Provide two examples of white privilege. Do you know people who have experienced this privilege? From what perspective?
- How do redlining and racial steering contribute to institutionalized racism?
- How does institutionalized racism impact health and life changes?
11.8.5 Licenses and Attributions for Conclusion
“Conclusion” by Jennifer Puentes is licensed under CC BY 4.0.
Figure 11.10. Many Multiracial Adults Have Experienced Racial Discrimination in “Multiracial in America.” Pew Research Center, Washington, D.C. (2015). License Terms: Pew’s terms of use.
11.8.6 Chapter Bibliography
Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality. 2010. The 2010 National Healthcare Disparities Report. https://archive.ahrq.gov/research/findings/nhqrdr/nhdr10/index.html
Arias, Elizabeth, Betzaida Tejada-Vera, Kenneth D. Kochanek, and Farida B. Ahmad. 2022. “Provisional Life Expectancy Estimates for 2021” Report No. 23 August 2022 Vital Statistics Rapid Release. Centers for Disease Control. https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/vsrr/vsrr023.pdf
Berkman, L. F. 2009. “Social epidemiology: Social determinants of health in the United States: Are we losing ground? Annual Review of Public Health, 30(1): 27–41. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.publhealth.031308.100310
Boas, Franz. 1911. The mind of primitive man: a course of lectures delivered before the Lowell institute, Boston, Mass., and the National university of Mexico, 1910-1911. Macmillan.
Bouie, Jamelle. 2014. “Why the Fires in Ferguson Won’t End Soon.” Slate.com. Retrieved October 9, 2014 (http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/politics/2014/08/ferguson_protests_over_michael_brown_won_t_end_soon_the_black_community.2.html).
Bonilla-Silva, Eduardo. 2015. The structure of racism in color-blind, “post-racial” America. American Behavioral Scientist. 59:1358-76.
Carter, Jordan, and Ian Snyder. July 21, 2020. “What Does It Mean to Be an Anti-racist?” National League of Cities (NLC). Retrieved March 18, 2021 (https://www.nlc.org/article/2020/07/21/what-does-it-mean-to-be-an-anti-racist/).
Centers for Disease Control [CDC]. 2008. “Community Health and Program Services (CHAPS): Health disparities among racial/ethnic populations.’ Atlanta: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.
Cherokee Nation v. The State of Georgia, 30 U.S. (5 Pet.) 1 (1831)
Coates, Ta-Nehisi. 2014. “The case for reparations.” The Atlantic. https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2014/06/the-case-for-reparations/361631/
Collins, Patricia Hill. 1990. Distinguishing Features of Black Feminist Thought. London: Routledge.
Connell, Raewyn. 2007. Southern Theory: The Global Dynamics of Knowledge in Social Science. Cambridge, UK: Polity.
Cross, William E., Jr. 1971. “The Negro-to-Black Conversion Experience.” Black World, 20(9): 13-27.
Cross, William E., Jr. 1991. Shades of Black: Diversity in African American Identity. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
Cross, William E., Jr. 2001. “Encountering Nigrescence.” In Handbook of multicultural counseling (2nd ed., pp. 30-14). J. G. Ponterotto, J. M. Casas, L. A. Suzuki, & C. M. Alexander (Eds.), Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Desmond, Matthew, and Mustafa Emirbayer. 2009. “What is racial domination?.” Du Bois Review: Social Science Research on Race 6(2): 335-355.
DiAngelo, R., 2018. White fragility: Why it’s so hard for white people to talk about racism. Beacon Press.
Du Bois, W.E.B. and M. Marable.[1903] 2015. Souls of black folk. Routledge.
Frey, W. H. 2020. “Even as metropolitan areas diversify, White Americans still live in mostly White neighborhoods.” The Brookings Institution. https://www.brookings.edu/research/even-as-metropolitan-areas-diversify-white-americans-still-live-in-mostly-white-neighborhoods/
Go, Julian. 2016. Postcolonial Thought and Social Theory. New York: Oxford University Press .https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780190625139.001.0001
Helms, Janet. 1990. Black and White Identity Development: Theory, Research and Practice. Westport, CT:Greenwood
Henry, M., Mahathey, A., Morrill, T., Robinson, A., Shivji, A., & Watt, D. 2018. “The 2018 Annual Homeless Assessment Report (AHAR) to Congress.” U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development. https://files.hudexchange.info/resources/documents/2018-AHAR-Part-1.pdf
Hughes, J. et al. 2019. “Historical context of racist planning: A history of how planning segregated Portland.” Bureau of Planning and Sustainability. City of Portland, Oregon. https://beta.portland.gov/sites/default/files/2019-12/portlandracistplanninghistoryreport.pdf
Kendi, Ibram X., 2017. Stamped from the Beginning: The Definitive History of Racist Ideas in America (Reprint Edition). Public Affairs.
Livingston, Gretchen. 2017. “The rise of multiracial and multiethnic babies in the U.S.” Pew Research Center. Retrieved August 31, 2022. https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/06/06/the-rise-of-multiracial-and-multiethnic-babies-in-the-u-s/
Lowery, Wesley and Darryl Fears. 2014. “Michael Brown and Dorian Johnson, the friend who witnessed his shooting”. The Washington Post. Retrieved October 9 , 2014. (http://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/michael-brown-and-dorian-johnson-the-friend-who-witnessed-his-shooting/2014/08/31/bb9b47ba-2ee2-11e4-9b98-848790384093_story.html).
Mastracci, Sharon and Veronica I. Arreola. 2016. “Gendered Organizations: How Human Resource Management Practices Produce and Reproduce Administrative Man.” Administrative Theory & Praxis, 38(2): 137-149.
Martín, Annette. 2021. “What is White Ignorance?” The Philosophical Quarterly, 71(4) https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/341796213.pdf
McIntosh, Peggy. 1988. “White Privilege: Unpacking the Invisible Knapsack.” White Privilege and Male Privilege: A Personal Account of Coming to See Correspondences Through Work in Women’s Studies. Wellesley, MA: Wellesley College Center for Research on Women.
Melaku, Tsedele and Beeman, Angie and Smith, David G. and Johnson, Brad W. 2020. “Be A Better Ally.”
Missouri Attorney General’s Office. (n.d.) “Racial Profiling Report.” Retrieved October 9, 2014 (http://ago.mo.gov/VehicleStops/2013/reports/161.pdf).
Morris, Alden. 2017. “ASA 2021 Presidential Address.” Vimeo. Retrieved September 2, 2022 (https://vimeo.com/582544449).
Mueller, Jennifer C. 2020. “Racial Ideology or Racial Ignorance? An Alternative Theory of Racial Cognition.” Sociological Theory: 38 (2): 142-169.
Ndugga, Nambi and Samantha Artiga. 2021. “Extreme Heat and Racial Health Equity.” Kaiser Family Foundation. Published Sep 08, 2021. Retrieved September 2, 2022. https://www.kff.org/policy-watch/extreme-heat-racial-health-equity/
Nobles, Frances, and Julie Bosman. 2014. “Autopsy Shows Michael Brown Was Struck at Least Six Times.” The New York Times. Retrieved October 9, 2014 (http://www.nytimes.com/2014/08/18/us/michael-brown-autopsy-shows-he-was-shot-at-least-6-times.html).
Omi, Michael, and Howard Winant. 1994. Racial Formation in the United States: from the 1960s to the 1990s (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Routledge.
Painter Nell Irvin. 2010. The History of White People. New York: W.W. Norton.
Parker, Kim, Juliana Menase Horowitz, Rich Morin, and Mark Hugo Lopez. 2015. “Multiracial in America: Proud, Diverse and Growing in Numbers” Pew Research Center. Retrieved August 31, 2022. https://www.pewresearch.org/social-trends/2015/06/11/multiracial-in-america/
Phinney, Jean S. 1996. “Understanding Ethnic Diversity: The Role of Ethnic Identity.” American Behavioral Scientist. 40(2): 143-152. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764296040002005
Race Forward. 2021. “What Is Systemic Racism?” Retrieved March 18, 2021 (https://www.raceforward.org/video-series/what-systemic-racism).
Rasberry, C. N., Tiu, G. F., Kann, L., McManus, T., Michael, S. L., Merlo, C. L., Lee, S. M., Bohm, M. K., Annor, F., & Ethier, K. A. 2017. “Health-related behaviors and academic achievement among high school students—United States, 2015. MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 66(35), 921–927. https://doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.mm6635a1
Ray, Victor. 2019. “A Theory of Racialized Organizations” American Sociological Review 84 (1): 26-53.
Roediger, David R. “The wages of whiteness: Race and the making of the American working class.” Class: The Anthology (2017): 41-55.
Schaefer Riley, N. 2016. “One way to help Native Americans: property rights.” The Atlantic. https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2016/07/native-americans-property-rights/492941/
Tatum, Beverly D. 2017[1997]. Why are all the Black kids sitting together in the cafeteria?: And other conversations about race. Hachette UK.
Tong , Michelle, Latoya Hill, and Samantha Artiga. 2022. “Racial Disparities in Cancer Outcomes, Screening, and Treatment.” Kaiser Family Foundation. Published Feb 03, 2022. Retrieved Sep 2, 2022.
U.S. Census Bureau. 2015. “Facts for Features: American Indian and Alaska Native Heritage Month: November 2015. https://www.sprc.org/resources-programs/us-census-bureau-profile-america-facts-features-american-indian-and-alaskan
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 2010. Healthy People 2020 objectives: Educational and community based programs
Wagley, Charles, and Marvin Harris. 1958. Minorities in the New World: Six Case Studies. New York: Columbia University Press.
Wirth, Louis. 1945. “The Problem of Minority Groups.” The Science of Man in the World Crisis, edited by R. Linton: 347. In Hacker, Helen Mayer. 1951. Women as a Minority Group. Retrieved December 1, 2011 (http://media.pfeiffer.edu/lridener/courses/womminor.html).