Since the 1970s sociologists have used a large number of theoretical frameworks that cannot be reduced to functionalism, conflict theory, or symbolic interactionism. Some of the frameworks expand upon the insights of the classical theorists, while others heavily criticize them for focusing on a narrow range of topics from very specific viewpoints. We will start with some of the internal and external critiques of American and European sociological theory before moving on to consider contemporary theories of gender and race.

2.6.1 Postmodern Theory

Postmodern theory emerged in the late 20th century in Europe and the United States. During that time period large changes were occurring in those societies. The economies of the societies moved from being based on industrial production to being based around services and knowledge. Because of changes in technology people across the globe became much more connected to each other. Wealth became increasingly concentrated and as a result the middle classes in most societies started to shrink. In intellectual circles, some of the assumptions associated with classical theory came under fire.

Postmodern theory offers a powerful critique of most of the theories and ideas we have discussed up to this point. In its more extreme forms it can also make doing sociology difficult as it questions some of the foundations of the discipline. Postmodernism is a broad and somewhat intentionally difficult to define term, typically applied to the arts and philosophy that was skeptical of “objective” universal explanations of how society and culture operate.

A wide range of thinkers could be classified under the framework of postmodernism, even though they might disagree with each other. Postmodern sociologists generally agree that the utopian and visionary theories of the past have lost their authority. People no longer believe science, reason or truth will provide answers to social problems or allow us to build a better social world. From this perspective no single theory or worldview (such as Marxism, functionalism, or positivism), can successfully unify all knowledge and experience. To postmodern theorists, knowledge becomes based on heterogeneity, plurality, and pragmatism. As a result knowledge and society fragments into multiple, local fields.

Postmodern theorists have attacked the social sciences and social theory on other issues. Some argue that the social sciences are linked to domination and control rather than truth and emancipation. Some claim postmodern theorists legitimize the preferences of the powerful.

Postmodernists argue that knowledge and knowledge production are influenced by individuals’ social position, instead of assuming one can disconnect those aspects of a person from their theory and research. Here a person’s position within society shapes the questions investigated, the theories used to explain social life under, and the research findings. Your social location is your position within society. This often includes your position in terms of race, class, gender, sexuality, age, ability, religion, and geography. Instead of privileging one particular vision or interpretation of something, postmodern social science documents, juxtaposes, and challenges multiple visions of the phenomena under study (Rosenau 1991).

Some postmodernists might focus their studies on alternative ways of thinking and meanings. They refocus social science onto the taken for granted and neglected, the irrational, and the marginal. Attention is also directed to the local rather than general. Overall, it results in a social science that is more subjective and humble (Rosenau 1991).

Well-known postmodern theorists include, Jean-Francois Lyotard (1924–1998), Michel Foucault (1926–1984), Jean Baudrillard (1929–2007), Fredric Jameson (1934–) and Zygmunt Bauman (1925–2017).

2.6.2 Postcolonial Theory

After World War II, the people in European colonies in Africa and Asia began rising up and challenging their colonizers. This led to the dismantling of European empires. Sometimes this occurred somewhat peacefully, other times only after war between the colonizer and colonized. One example of this is the Algerian War of Independence fought against the French in the 1950s and 1960s. Against this backdrop of decolonization postcolonial theory emerged. Generally, postcolonial theory explores colonial relations and their aftermath, and how those relations have been created. The framework tends to focus on subjugated people and their ways of thinking in relation to such themes as race, nation, power, and hybridity.

In a similar vein to postmodern theory, postcolonial theory challenges the theoretical frameworks of mainstream American sociology. Most classical and modern theorists assume that their frameworks are universal and can be applied to all societies (Connell 2007). Even though the theorists, who have specific backgrounds and positions within their own societies, developed their theories in very specific societies at particular points in time. As noted earlier, most of what is considered sociological theory is derived from the ideas of white, upper middle class men living in the United States and Europe. Typically the theorists are from societies that are/were engaging in colonial and imperial projects. This standpoint leads to theorizing that engages in “grande erasure” where there is an “erasure of the experience of the majority of human kind from the foundations of social thought” (Connell 2007:46).

Postcolonial thought critiques empires and their legacies. As noted by sociologist Julian Go, “if social theory was born from and for empire, postcolonial thought was born against it” (Go 2016:1). While there is a wide diversity of theorists and thought that is included in postcolonial theory, there are a couple of points that hold the framework together. One is that empire, colonialism, and imperialism matter. These processes shaped and continue to shape societies across the globe. Second, empire, colonialism, and imperialism should be critiqued. This includes critiquing the ways colonialism and imperialism influence how people understand the social world. The critique is paired with seeking out alternative ways of knowing and thinking (Go 2016).

Postcolonial theory starts from a very different place than most classical theory. Go argues that it should start from the standpoint of the subaltern. Subaltern groups are groups that are made subordinate by powerful groups because of their class, caste, gender, nationality or any other dimension of difference. This means that postcolonial theory “instead of starting from atop or from afar, instead of starting with theories and concepts cultivated from the standpoint of power, the subaltern standpoint starts on the ground. It starts from the standpoint of the subjugated” (Go 2016:143). Even when they challenge the oppression they face, subaltern groups have to deal with the dominant group in some manner (Macey 2000).

Some well known postcolonial theorists include W. E. B. Du Bois, Frantz Fanon (1925–1961), Aimé Césaire (1913–2008), Amilcar Cabral (1924–1973), C. L. R. James (1901–1989). More recent thinkers include Edward Said (1935–2003), Homi Bhabha (1949–), Gayatri Spivak (1942–), and Dipesh Chakrabarty (1948–).

2.6.3 Feminist Theory

Feminist theory is a branch of sociological theory that examines inequalities in gender-related issues. Feminist theories and ideas have undergone transformation during different waves of feminism. A new “wave” emerges as we work towards greater inclusivity of groups that were previously marginalized or left out of the discussion. You will learn more about each wave in Chapter 9.

Feminist theory emerges from a context where society is viewed as a patriarchy with uneven distributions of power that fall along sex and gender lines. Patriarchy refers to a society, system, or group in which men dominate women and have the power and authority. In patriarchal societies, men’s contributions are seen as more valuable than those of women. Patriarchal perspectives and arrangements are widespread and taken for granted. As a result, women’s viewpoints tend to be silenced or marginalized to the point of being discredited or considered invalid. We have seen some of this in sociology with the women theorists we discussed previously in this chapter.

Given some of the overlapping premisses of feminist theory, we can think of feminism as a position that advocates for the equal rights of women and men. Despite the emphasis on equal rights, there continues to be social stigma surrounding feminism. What’s going on here? Some point to the lack of knowledge about what feminism is, others argue that people are misinterpreting the ideas of different types of feminism. While not everyone neccessarily believes in equal rights, to understand feminist perspectives, we need to see the value in equity.

There are many different types of feminisms, with many different perspectives that often overlap, but there are three basic commonalities to most feminist theories:

1. Gender matters. In other words, gender is one of the most important parts of society; gender is a basis of structure and organization of the social world
2. Society is arranged so that women are given less status or value (patriarchy)
3. Regardless of the causes of these differences, they can and should be reduced or eliminated.

One type of feminism, referred to as standpoint feminism, centers the viewpoint of subjugated individuals or groups. Dorthy Smith helped develop the ideas of feminist standpoint theory. She saw standpoint theory as a way to examine society from the perspectives of women and as a way to help women understand their worlds (Lorber 2010). Viewpoints are seen as having a partial “truth” and knowledge itself can be situational. From the perspective of this theory, since women’s lives and roles are often different from men, women have a different type of knowledge. As a subordinated group in a patriarchal society, women can understand the world in ways that may challenge conventional beliefs. In this section, we introduced many types of feminism. If you find yourself wondering why we need so many different types of feminism, you are not alone. Check out the short video linked in “Pedagogical Element: A Closer Look at Feminism” to understand why sociologist continue to develop so many competing theoretical perspectives.

Some well known feminist theorists include Charlotte Perkins Gilman (1860–1935), Betty Friedan (1921–2006), Simone de Beauvoir (1908–1986), Nancy Hartsock (1943–2015), Judith Butler (1956–), Donna Haraway (1944–), Sandra Harding (1935–), Joan Acker (1924–2016).

Black Feminist Theory and Intersectionality

During the third wave of feminism, sociologists began to criticize second wave feminists as focusing too much on the experiences of white women and ignoring experiences of women who identified as non-white. They argued that experiences of BIPOC needed to be centered in feminist discussions. Gender is important, they agreed, but it wasn’t not the only social identity that shaped the experiences of women of color in the United States. Women of color experience more prejudices during face-to-face interactions and higher disparities in pay compared to their white counterparts. Research suggests that in addition to gender, race also plays an important role and can create a “double disadvantage” or “double jeopardy” (Browne and Misra 2003; McCall 2005).

Patricia Hill Collins added the dimension of social class when she conceptualized this experience as the “matrix of domination” in Black Feminist Thought: Knowledge, Consciousness, and the Politics of Empowerment (1990). Black feminist theory suggests that social change requires us to change the consciousness of individuals. The social transformation of economic and political institutions and new knowledge is important for dimensions of change. Black feminist theory fosters a fundamental paradigmatic shift in feminist theory and the sociology of knowledge concerning assessing “truth” (Collins 1990).

Intersectionality is the idea that inequalities produced by multiple and interconnected social characteristics can influence the life course of an individual or group. Intersectionality, then, suggests that we should view gender, race, class, or sexuality not as individual characteristics but as interconnected social situations. Intersectionality studies have their origins with women of color in the United States. Much of the research in this field has its roots not just in academic discourse, but in attempts to initiate social change. Dr. Kimberlé Crenshaw (figure 2.12) highlights the ways that gender and race have been historically separated into separate fields of study which creates a situation where “race” (the universal racial subject) ends up referring to the experiences of men of color. Meanwhile in studies of “gender,” white women are perceived as the universal female subject. In the next section, “Pedagogical Element: A Closer Look at Intersectionality” you will have the opportunity to explore intersectional feminist theory in greater detail.

The theory of intersectionality reflects multiple perspectives, places emphasis on lived experiences, and creates visibility around perspectives of marginalized groups. Check out this short 3-minute video Intersectionality 101 from Learning for Justice helps explain some of the complexities of this concept. While viewing, consider what other social identities could be included?

We will revisit the concept of intersection throughout text, particularly in Chapter 9. Well known intersectional feminists include Kimberlé Crenshaw (1959–), Patricia Hill Collins (1948–), bell hooks (1952–2021), Angela Davis (1944–), and Gloria Anzaldúa (1942–2004).

2.6.6 Critical Theories of Race

One theory that emerged out of the study of law and the growing realization that the Civil Rights movement in the United States had lost its momentum is critical race theory. This framework draws from intersectional feminism and the work of W. E. B. Du Bois.

Critical race theory is an intellectual and social framework that examines how racism is embedded in American social life through its systems and institutions. While racism is prevalent there are few incentives for those that benefit from the current arrangement to eradicate racism. In this framework, race is a social construct, something that changes depending on the social and political conditions of the society at a particular point in time. Race is not something that is rooted in biology or has some essence behind it. The framework centers the knowledge and experiences of people of color and points to how those knowledges and experiences intersect with other identities, such as gender and sexuality. Within sociology this involves critiquing how sociology has privileged white ideals, culture, and interpretations ( Bonilla-Silva 2003; Zuberi and Bonilla-Silva 2008; Omi and Winant 2015).

The work of sociologists Michael Omi (1951–), Howard Winant (1946–), Eduardo Bonilla Silva (1962–), and Joe Feagin (1938–) align with this framework. We will explore these in more detail in Chapter 11.