This chapter explores crime as a learned behavior, the ways that social interactions and societal reactions to deviance can impact criminal offending, and subcultural theories of crime. Learning theories incorporate psychological understanding of human learning to explain how people come to commit crime. Key theorists conclude that crime is learned from intimate others, often just like anything else is learned. Sometimes this behavior becomes ingrained due to repetitive exposure to pro-crime values (differential association theory), and other times the behavior is reinforced through rewards and punishments (social learning theory). Other theorists explain ingrained criminality as a product of our society’s role in placing informal and formal labels on people who engage in deviant behavior (labeling theory). Finally, some criminologists highlight the significance of cultural expectations and values, as an inability to achieve conventional societal goals may lead to rebellion or creation of a new subculture, both of which may lead to criminal offending (subcultural theories).

Discussion Questions

1. How do learning theories explain variations in criminal behavior across different social groups?
2. What are some real-world examples to which the principles of operant conditioning can be applied to understand criminal behavior and its consequences?
3. What challenges do historically marginalized groups and/or people living below the federal poverty threshold face in being able to achieve the American Dream?
4. Discuss some of the criticisms or weaknesses of learning theories, societal reaction theories, and subcultural theories.
5. How can insights from learning theories and subcultural theories inform crime prevention strategies aimed at reducing recidivism? What ethical considerations should be taken into account?
6. What are the implications of labeling theory for understanding the effects of criminal justice policies on individuals and communities?

Supplemental Resources

If you want to dig deeper into the topics covered in this chapter, check out the following resources:

• This video, “Subcultural Theories [Streaming Video],” discusses key concepts and propositions of subcultural theories in criminology.
• This article, “People-First Language Matters [Website],” discusses how terms such as “felon” or “convict” contribute to stigmatization. This is relevant to labeling theory and societal reaction.