In this chapter, we discussed control theories, theories that fit into a developmental life course perspective, and theory integration. Let’s consider how these theoretical approaches have impacted the field of criminology and how they remain relevant.

Social control theory has been one of the most tested theories in criminology, though the results have been mixed overall. The evidence suggests that weak social bonds are related to an increase in offending, but the strength of this relationship varies from low to moderate, suggesting that other variables need to be taken into account (Lilly et al., 2019). Other studies question what happens when children are attached to parents who are involved in illegal behavior themselves. For example, Jensen and Brownfield (1983) found that close attachment to parents who use drugs does not prevent children from engaging in drug use themselves. There is also the question of whether commitment and involvement are always positive (O’Grady, 2014). Was it not a commitment to win and heavy involvement in the sport that led Lance Armstrong to use performance-enhancing drugs to win the Tour de France?

While these criticisms are important, social control theory remains an important way of understanding the development of criminal behavior in youth, and Hirschi remains one of criminology’s most important thinkers.

Although not embraced by all criminologists, the developmental life course perspective has led to a fundamental change in common assumptions in the field of criminology. These new studies and their findings have led to new research questions, concepts, and methods. As opposed to earlier theories that looked for simple or straightforward answers, the developmental life course approach recognizes that criminal behavior is far more complex and dynamic. Under this perspective, researchers try to understand why individuals move into and out of criminal behavior across their full lifespan.

An interesting strength of the developmental life course approach is its applicability to delinquency and crime prevention policy. This application can begin even before birth. For example, poor pre- and postnatal care can lead to developmental delays or abnormalities that can place kids at risk for offending behavior. Interventions during high-risk pregnancies, for those who are addicted to substances during pregnancy, and for those high-risk homes after birth could help improve juveniles’ health and potentially reduce the early risk for criminality (Tibbetts, 2015) and prevent life-course-persistent offending.

Traditional theories tend to focus on between-individual differences, such as low levels of social control, weak social bonds, association with delinquent peers, and the presence of strain. However, developmental life course theories examine factors both between individuals and within individuals. This moves the research agenda in criminology from simply asking why people do or don’t offend to more complex questions, such as why offending starts, why it continues or escalates in severity or frequency, and why it declines or slows down at different stages of the life course.

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Licenses and Attributions for Modern Application: How Is It Relevant Now?

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“Modern Application: How is it Relevant Now? Question Set” was created by ChatGPT and is not subject to copyright. Edits for relevance, alignment, and meaningful answer feedback by Colleen Sanders are licensed under CC BY 4.0.

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“Modern Application: How Is It Relevant Now?” is adapted from “Social Control Theory” in Introduction to Criminology, by Dr. Sean Ashley, which is licensed under CC BY 4.0, except where otherwise noted. Modifications by Jessica René Peterson and Mauri Matsuda, licensed under CC BY 4.0, include expanding to include other chapter topics and tailoring to the American context.