As explained in Chapter 1, criminology is the scientific field of study devoted to understanding the causes of crime. When we start talking about criminology, it is important to consider what was going on before the field existed. That history (at least from the perspective of those in the United States) focuses on Europe. In what is considered pre-enlightenment times, European societies were dominated by two major authority figures: the aristocracy (the rich and powerful) and the church. The church saw crime as a sin or demonic possession and dealt with it through religious intervention. The aristocracy handled crime based on the social status of the person who committed the offense. As a result, the same crime would be met with wildly different responses (all the way from forgiveness to execution) based on who was involved. These two conflicting authorities lacked any consistent or effective method of responding to or preventing crime. In fact, because of the outrageous nature of charges and associated punishments, if someone made it to trial the jury began to refuse to convict anyone as a form of protest against the lopsided and irrational system.