4.6 Interactionist Theories
Interactionist theories are theories that suggest that criminal behavior is learned through interaction with others. Socialization and learning processes occur as the result of group membership and relationships. In other words, the saying “you are known by the company you keep” fits perfectly with the interactionist perspective because it is the company you keep that may determine your attitudes and subsequent behaviors.
4.6.1 Differential Association Theory
American sociologist Edwin Sutherland’s (1939) differential association theory asserted that criminality is learned through a process of interactions with others who communicate criminal values and who advocate for the commission of crimes. Sutherland believed that other attempts to explain criminality (genetics, biological, psychological) had flaws and could not fully explain why a person committed a crime. For Sutherland, the role of social learning was at the core of criminality. He summarized his theory through the following nine principles:
- Criminal behavior is learned.
- Criminal behavior is learned during interactions with others through communication.
- Most learning about criminal behavior happens in intimate personal groups and relationships.
- The process of learning criminal behavior may include learning about techniques to carry out the behavior as well as the motives and rationalizations that would justify criminal activity and the attitudes necessary to commit crime.
- The direction of motives and drives toward criminal behavior is learned through the interpretation of legal codes in one’s geographical area as favorable or unfavorable.
- A person becomes delinquent because of an excess of definitions favorable to law violations over definitions unfavorable to law violations.
- All interactions with others are not equal. They can vary in frequency, intensity, priority, and duration.
- The process of learning criminal behaviors through interactions with others relies on the same mechanisms that are used in learning about any other behavior.
- While criminal behavior is an expression of general needs and values, it is not explained by those general needs and values because noncriminal behavior is an expression of the same needs and values.
Sutherland combined psychological and sociological principles to create a relational perspective on criminality. Even though it was and is popular to blame mass media (movies, books, social media, television, etc.) for social problems, Sutherland did not believe it was possible to learn criminal behavior through those avenues because they could not provide the required social context for learning.
4.6.2 Labeling Theory
American sociologist Howard Becker (1963) believed that “deviance is not a quality of the act the person commits, but rather a consequence of the application by others of rules and sanctions to an offender.” In other words, according to Becker’s labeling theory, someone only becomes deviant once that label is applied to them. This can occur through negative societal reactions that ultimately result in a tarnished and damaged self-image and negative social expectations.
Think about the labels that exist in our society: one of the most difficult ones to see past for many is the label of the “criminal.” For example, what do you think immediately when someone tells you they were in jail or prison? Right away, a label is created and it usually isn’t created from direct knowledge but a range of stereotypes that have been obtained over the years. Once the label is created it affects how the individual is treated and viewed.
When someone asks you about yourself, what is the first thing you tell them? Do you say you are a student, or a brother/sister, or a parent? Our master status, or most prominent identity description, according to Becker, defines our social position and a criminal label can become a master status overriding all others (Becker, 1963). Having a criminal record can make it difficult for an individual to get employment, buy or rent a home/apartment, or even find a healthy relationship mainly because of the negative label. In fact, there has been a movement to remove the question that asks about past criminal convictions from job applications because, for many, that automatically disqualifies the individual from job consideration.
Should we forever be known and labeled for our worst day? Everyone has participated in activities that could put their master status in jeopardy but for many, that information is never discovered. However, in a society now that records so much of its behavior, our past indiscretions could change our future lives even if we have changed as individuals. Once a negative label is assigned, then it is a difficult process to regain a positive master status.
This damaged self-image could result in a self-fulfilling prophecy, which is a process in which an originally false expectation leads to its own confirmation. In other words, if you treat someone like a criminal then they may ultimately become a criminal to confirm the false expectations of society.
4.6.3 Impact of Diversion Programs on Juveniles
Juvenile diversion programs hold youth accountable for their behaviors without resorting to legal sanctions (meaning they will not end up with a criminal record). This concept can be seen as arising from two theories: labeling and differential association. Labeling theory views the experience of processing certain youth through the juvenile justice system as potentially doing more harm than good since it can stigmatize them for committing relatively minor acts that could have been handled outside of the formal system (Lundman, 1993). Labeling a juvenile a “delinquent” can affect the way in which the juvenile defines themselves and how society perceives them which, in turn, can influence future behaviors.
Differential association theory states that juveniles who become part of the system will end up adopting antisocial attitudes and behaviors from their delinquent peers. The more youth are exposed to more advanced delinquent youths and adults, the more it is thought to have a criminogenic effect on the individual. This increases the chance of the confined youth reoffending. In other words, they learn more bad behaviors from others while they are locked up with them. According to the theory, the more you limit a juvenile’s exposure to the juvenile justice system, the less likely they will adopt the attitudes and behaviors of those present in the system.
Diversion programs intend to minimize the effects of labeling youth as deviant while limiting their opportunities to associate with delinquent peers and adopt antisocial behaviors. Adolescence is a time of discovery and mistakes can be made but without diversion programs some juveniles’ adolescent mistakes could limit their opportunities for the rest of their lives.
4.6.4 Social Learning Theory
Social learning theory asserts that people learn attitudes and behaviors conducive to crime in both social and nonsocial situations from positive reinforcement (rewards) and negative reinforcement (punishments). An absence of rewards could make criminal behavior more attractive while the presence of punishment may steer an individual away from similar behavior.
Sociologist Robert Burgess and criminologist Ronald Akers (1966) believed that “criminal behavior is a function of norms which are discriminative for criminal behavior, the learning of which takes place when such behavior is more highly reinforced than noncriminal behavior.” In other words, if deviant behavior is rewarded then the individual will continue with that behavior similar to a student who is rewarded for good grades and strives to continue to achieve good grades.
Social learning occurs in two ways: imitation and reinforcement. An individual observes what happens to others and if the actions are rewarded then it is more likely the actions will be copied. For instance, if a friend of yours illegally obtains a pair of limited edition shoes and is praised by others, then it is more likely that you would try to obtain the shoes in a similar manner with hopes of receiving the same praise.
This theory is similar to differential association theory that focuses on imitating behavior that has been modeled by those around you, but it broadens the focus by specifying the process of learning from other people by including the observation of whether that person is being rewarded for their behavior. This becomes part of the decision to become deviant.
We will continue talking about social learning in the next chapter when we look at it through the lens of psychology.
4.6.4.1 Example: Ed Kemper and Social Learning Theory
Figure 4.7: Ed Kemper’s Mugshot (1973).
It would be uncommon for serial killers to learn how to kill by watching others, however, if the focus is turned to the idea of rewards and punishments, then social learning theory could be applied to those individuals. Serial killers in interviews have confessed to being humiliated by parents, caretakers, and the opposite sex. When faced with the same issues later in their lives, the anger and resentment that has built up over the years may have transformed the individual into a murderer.
The serial killer Ed Kemper (figure 4.7) is an example of a serial killer who developed anger toward his caregivers and then later went on to kill them. Ed Kemper was featured in the Netflix show Mindhunter and with the exception of his grandfather (he killed his grandparents at age 15), all of his victims were women. Kemper not only killed his victims but degraded them after death which allowed him to enact behaviors that he wanted to previously direct toward his mother. Later, he killed his mother.
Kemper spoke of his hatred for his mother because of the psychological abuse she subjected him to as a child and he chose to murder her in order to make the killings stop. When he came to the conclusion that ultimately it was his mother he wanted to kill all along, Kemper surrendered himself to authorities. Kemper learned to kill indirectly through the hate he endured from his mother and sisters. His family did not treat him as a human being and later he accepted that label and became a serial killer.
4.6.5 Licenses and Attributions for Interactionist Theories
“Interactionist Theories” by Curt Sobolewski is licensed under CC BY 4.0.
Figure 4.7 Photo of Ed Kemper’s Mugshot (1973) is in the Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons.
