It is after all this nonsense that the field of criminology officially began in earnest. The beginning of criminology can be traced back to two major schools of thought – the classical school and the positive school. Early theories in these two schools that are the foundation for the field of criminology will be discussed in this chapter.

The first—the classical school of criminology—has its origins in the eighteenth century and the Age of Enlightenment. The Age of Enlightenment was brought on with the spread of education, philosophy, and new ways of thinking. In other words, people became enlightened. Also, as the middle class became larger and smarter, they gained more of their own power. During the eighteenth century, revolutions in the American colonies, as well as France, led to the replacement of monarchies with democratic institutions of government. This put the power in the hands of the people rather than only the church and aristocracy. As a result, the Age of Enlightenment brought about a new era of understanding and addressing human behavior, including crime.

The second major school of thought—the positive school of criminology—has its origins in the philosophy of positivism (the notion that knowledge should be based on evidence). In other words, if something is proven through evidence, one can feel positive or certain it is true. This was the start of the application of the scientific method to the study of human populations and social phenomena that later became common research practice in the nineteenth century. During this time, criminologists tried to figure out crime through research that would show them the exact cause in a predictable and preventable manner. The focus shifted from responding to crime to trying to prevent crime, unfortunately often with horrific outcomes. In this chapter, we will focus on the earliest positivist theories in criminology, although there are many more that fall within the positive school. These theories are closely associated with biological explanations of crime, the early discipline of medicine, and the field referred to as “criminal anthropology” (proposed by Cesare Lombroso and extended by others). Today, these theories are not considered valid due to their lack of scientific support and use of outdated methods, but they are still considered important because of their genuine attempt to apply scientific methods to the study of crime.