Criminology has its origins in the classical and positive schools, both of which emerged from the Age of Enlightenment. Although not regarded as scientific theories, the classical school writings of Cesare Beccaria and Jeremy Bentham included assumptions about human nature and criminal behavior. In their view, humans were rational, self-interested, and hedonistic, and the purpose of the criminal law and punishments was to deter criminal behavior. The positive school represents the broader emergence of the idea that knowledge should be based on empirical, or scientific data, and the application of the scientific method to the study of social phenomena such as crime. Although lacking a strong theoretical statement, early efforts to gather statistics on crime and examine geographic, seasonal, and demographic patterns in criminal behavior represented an early effort of the positivist approach. The first attempts to scientifically explain criminal behavior came from doctors and psychiatrists in their search for the causes of mental illness (e.g., moral insanity), and other scientists who sought to better understand the link between the physical body (e.g., phrenology, physiognomy) and the human mind. As developments in the understanding of evolution and heredity advanced in the wider scientific world, concepts of degeneracy came to dominate the discourse about the causes of crime. This idea was extended by Cesare Lombroso, the first scholar to develop a theory of crime and apply the scientific method to its study. Although initially, he believed that criminals were evolutionary throwbacks, distinguishable by distinct physical characteristics, eventually his theory itself evolved to incorporate environmental explanations. Unfortunately, his theory also offered convenient justification for racist projects including Nazi and American eugenics. Although some scholars continued to work in the biological tradition, the horrors of genocide and eugenic projects and the rise of sociological positivism led to a disappearance of biological explanations in criminology. Today’s biological positivism rejects the earlier determinism of the previous century and emphasizes the importance of environmental factors.

3.8.4 Summary

Criminology has its origins in two schools of thought: the classical and positive schools. Whereas theories within the classical school assume that all people are rational, self-interested, and capable of criminal behavior, theories within the positive school assume that criminal behavior is due to forces beyond an individual’s control, such as their biological or psychological makeup, environment, or sociological factors. Whereas the classical school asserted that punishment is the best approach to prevent crime, early proponents of the positive school suggested that medical treatment, rehabilitation, and, in some instances, incapacitation was the best approach. Although Lombroso is remembered for developing the first scientific theory of crime and attempting to gather data to test his theory, the crude methods and eugenic implications led to the biological approach being replaced by sociological perspectives. In contrast with these earlier theories, modern research on the biological roots of crime emphasizes the importance of the environment in interaction with biological factors to better explain crime.

3.8.5 Resources

• This four-part series by PBS explores the science of mental illness and how it has developed over time. Mysteries of Mental Illness. (2022). https://www.pbs.org/show/mysteries-mental-illness/
• This NPR Fresh Air interview shares the research of Adrian Raine on brain scans of murderers. (2014). Criminologist believes violent behavior is biological. https://www.npr.org/2014/03/21/292375166/criminologist-believes-violent-behavior-is-biological