Since the 1970s, sociologists have used numerous theoretical frameworks that cannot be reduced to functionalism, conflict theory, or symbolic interactionism. Some of the frameworks expand upon the insights of the classical theorists, while others heavily criticize them for focusing on a narrow range of topics from very specific viewpoints. We will start with some of the internal and external critiques of American and European sociological theory before we consider contemporary theories of gender and race.

Postmodern Theory

Postmodern theory emerged in the late twentieth century in Europe and the United States. During that period, significant changes were occurring in those societies. Their economies moved from being based on industrial production to being based on services and knowledge. Changes in technology meant that people across the globe became much more connected to each other. Wealth became increasingly concentrated, and as a result, the middle classes in most societies started to shrink. In intellectual circles, some of the assumptions associated with classical theory came under fire.

Postmodern theory offers a powerful critique of most of the theories and ideas we have discussed up to this point. In its more extreme forms, it can also make doing sociology difficult as it questions some of the foundations of the discipline. A wide range of thinkers could be classified under the framework of postmodernism, even though they might disagree with each other. Postmodern sociologists generally agree that the utopian and visionary theories of the past have lost their authority. People no longer believe science, reason, or truth will provide answers to social problems or allow us to build a better social world. From this perspective, no single theory or worldview (such as Marxism, functionalism, or positivism), can successfully unify all knowledge and experience. To postmodern theorists, knowledge becomes based on heterogeneity, subjectivity, plurality, and pragmatism. As a result, knowledge and society fragment into multiple, local fields.

Postmodern theorists have attacked the social sciences and social theory on other issues. Some argue that the social sciences are linked to domination and control, rather than to truth and emancipation. Some claim postmodern theorists legitimize the preferences of the powerful.

Postmodernists argue that knowledge and knowledge production are influenced by individuals’ social position, instead of assuming one can disconnect those aspects of a person from their theory and research. Here, a person’s position within society shapes the questions investigated, the theories used to explain social life, and the research findings. Your social location is your position within society. This often includes your position in terms of race, class, gender, sexuality, age, ability, religion, and geography. Instead of privileging one particular vision or interpretation of something, postmodern social science documents, juxtaposes, and challenges multiple visions of the phenomena under study (Rosenau 1991).

Some postmodernists might focus their studies on alternative meanings and ways of thinking. They refocus social science on the taken-for-granted and neglected, the irrational, and the marginal. Attention is also directed to the local rather than the general. Overall, it results in a social science that is more subjective and humble (Rosenau 1991).

Well-known postmodern theorists include Jean-Francois Lyotard (1924–1998), Michel Foucault (1926–1984), Jean Baudrillard (1929–2007), Fredric Jameson (1934–), and Zygmunt Bauman (1925–2017).

Postcolonial Theory

After World War II, people in the European colonies in Africa and Asia began rising up and challenging their colonizers. This led to the dismantling of European empires. Sometimes this occurred somewhat peacefully, but other times it involved war between the colonizer and colonized. One example of this is the Algerian War of Independence fought against the French in the 1950s and 1960s. Against this backdrop of decolonization, postcolonial theory emerged. Generally, postcolonial theory explores colonial relations and their aftermath. It also examines how those relations were created. The framework tends to focus on subjugated people and their ways of thinking about such themes as race, nation, power, and hybridity.

In a similar vein to postmodern theory, postcolonial theory challenges the theoretical frameworks of mainstream American sociology. Most classical and modern theorists assume that their frameworks are universal and can be applied to all societies (Connell 2007). This is despite the fact that the theorists, who have specific backgrounds and positions within their societies, developed their theories in very specific societies at particular points in time. As noted earlier, most of what is considered sociological theory is derived from the ideas of White, upper-middle-class men living in the United States and Europe. Typically, the theorists are from societies that are or were engaging in colonial and imperial projects. This standpoint leads to theorizing that engages in “grande erasure” in which there is an “erasure of the experience of the majority of human kind from the foundations of social thought” (Connell 2007:46).

Postcolonial thought critiques empires and their legacies. As noted by sociologist Julian Go, “if social theory was born from and for empire, postcolonial thought was born against it” (Go 2016:1). While there is great diversity in the theorists and thought included in postcolonial theory, there are a couple of points that hold the framework together. One is that empire, colonialism, and imperialism matter. These processes shaped and continue to shape societies across the globe. Second, empire, colonialism, and imperialism should be critiqued. This includes critiquing the ways colonialism and imperialism influence how people understand the social world. The critique is paired with seeking out alternative ways of knowing and thinking (Go 2016).

Postcolonial theory starts from a very different place than most classical theories. Go argues that it should begin from the standpoint of the subaltern. Subaltern groups are groups that are made subordinate by powerful groups because of their class, caste, gender, nationality, or any other dimension of difference. This means that postcolonial theory “instead of starting from atop or from afar, instead of starting with theories and concepts cultivated from the standpoint of power, the subaltern standpoint starts on the ground. It starts from the standpoint of the subjugated” (Go 2016:143). Even when they challenge the oppression they face, subaltern groups have to deal with the dominant group in some manner (Macey 2000).

Some well-known postcolonial theorists include W. E. B. Du Bois, Frantz Fanon (1925–1961), Aimé Césaire (1913–2008), Amilcar Cabral (1924–1973), C. L. R. James (1901–1989). More recent thinkers include Edward Said (1935–2003), Homi Bhabha (1949–), Gayatri Spivak (1942–), and Dipesh Chakrabarty (1948–).

Feminist Theory

Feminist theory is a branch of sociological theory that argues women suffer discrimination because they belong to a particular sex category (female) or gender (woman), and that women’s needs are denied or ignored because of their sex. Feminism centers the notion of patriarchy in understandings of inequality and largely argues that major changes are required to various social structures and institutions to establish gender equality.

Feminist theories and ideas have undergone a transformation during different waves of feminism, but the common root of all feminisms is the drive towards equity and justice. A new “wave” emerges as we work towards greater inclusivity of groups that were previously marginalized or left out of the discussion. You will learn more about each wave in Chapter 9. If you would like to learn more now, you can explore A Brief Look at the Four Waves of Feminism [Website].

Feminist theory emerges from a context in which society is viewed as patriarchal with uneven distributions of power that fall along sex and gender lines. In patriarchal societies, men’s contributions are seen as more valuable than those of women. Patriarchal perspectives and arrangements are widespread and taken for granted. As a result, women’s viewpoints tend to be silenced or marginalized to the point of being discredited or considered invalid. We have seen some of this in sociology with the women theorists we discussed previously in this chapter.

Given some of the overlapping premises of feminist theory, we can think of feminism as a position that advocates for the equal rights of women and men. Despite the emphasis on equal rights, there continues to be a social stigma surrounding feminism. What’s going on here? Some point to the lack of knowledge about what feminism is, others argue that people are misinterpreting the ideas of different types of feminism. While not everyone necessarily believes in equal rights, we need to see the value in equity to understand feminist perspectives.

There are many different types of feminisms, with many different perspectives that often overlap. But there are three basic commonalities to most feminist theories:

1. Gender matters. In other words, gender is one of the most important parts of society; gender is a basis of the structure and organization of the social world.
2. Society is arranged so that women are given less status or value (patriarchy).
3. Regardless of the causes of these differences, they can and should be reduced or eliminated.

One type of feminism referred to as “standpoint feminism” centers on the viewpoint of subjugated individuals or groups. Dorothy Smith helped develop the ideas of feminist standpoint theory. She saw standpoint theory as a way to examine society from the perspectives of women and as a way to help women understand their worlds (Lorber 2010). Viewpoints are seen as having a partial “truth,” and knowledge itself can be situational. From the perspective of this theory, since women’s lives and roles are often different from those of men, women have a different type of knowledge. As a subordinated group in a patriarchal society, women can understand the world in ways that may challenge conventional beliefs.

In this section, we mentioned that there are many types of feminism. If you find yourself wondering why we need so many different types of feminism, you are not alone. Check out the short video linked in “Activity: Feminism and Pizza” to understand why sociologists continue to develop so many competing theoretical perspectives.

Some well-known feminist theorists include Charlotte Perkins Gilman (1860–1935), Betty Friedan (1921–2006), Simone de Beauvoir (1908–1986), Nancy Hartsock (1943–2015), Judith Butler (1956–), Donna Haraway (1944–), Sandra Harding (1935–), and Joan Acker (1924–2016).

Black Feminist Theory and Intersectionality

During the third wave of feminism, sociologists began to criticize second-wave feminists as focusing too much on the experiences of White women and ignoring the experiences of women who identified as non-White. They argued that experiences of BIPOC needed to be centered in feminist discussions. Gender is important, they agreed, but it wasn’t the only social identity that shaped the experiences of women of color in the United States. Women of color experience more prejudices during face-to-face interactions and higher disparities in pay compared to their White counterparts. Research suggests that in addition to gender, race also plays an important role and can create a “double disadvantage” or “double jeopardy” (Browne and Misra 2003; McCall 2005).

Patricia Hill Collins added the dimension of social class when she conceptualized this experience as the “matrix of domination” in Black Feminist Thought: Knowledge, Consciousness, and the Politics of Empowerment (1990). Black feminist theory suggests that social change requires us to change the consciousness of individuals. The social transformation of economic and political institutions and new knowledge is important for dimensions of change. Black feminist theory fosters a fundamental paradigm shift in feminist theory and the sociology of knowledge concerning the assessment of “truth” (Collins 1990).

Intersectionality is the idea developed by Kimberlé Crenshaw in 1989 that refers to the interconnected nature of social categorizations such as race, class, gender, age, and the multiplicative effect on victimization. Intersectionality, then, suggests that we should view gender, race, class, and sexuality not as individual characteristics but as interconnected social situations. Intersectionality studies have their origins with women of color in the United States. Much of the research in this field has its roots not just in academic discourse, but in attempts to initiate social change. Crenshaw highlights the ways that gender and race have been historically separated into separate fields of study which creates a situation where “race” (the universal racial subject) ends up referring to the experiences of men of color. Meanwhile in studies of “gender,” White women are perceived as the universal female subject.

We will revisit the concept of intersection throughout the text, particularly in Chapter 9. Well-known intersectional feminists include Kimberlé Crenshaw (1959–), Patricia Hill Collins (1948–), bell hooks (1952–2021), Angela Davis (1944–), and Gloria Anzaldúa (1942–2004).

Critical Theories of Race

Critical race theory emerged from the study of law and the growing realization that the civil rights movement in the United States had lost its momentum. This framework draws from intersectional feminism and the work of W. E. B. Du Bois.

Critical race theory is an intellectual and social framework that examines how racism is embedded in American social life through its systems and institutions. While racism is prevalent, there are few incentives for those that benefit from the current arrangement to eradicate racism. In this framework, race is a social construct, something that changes depending on the social and political conditions of the society at a particular point in time. Race is not something that is rooted in biology or has some essence behind it. The framework centers on the knowledge and experiences of people of color and points to how those knowledges and experiences intersect with other identities, such as gender and sexuality. Within sociology, this involves critiquing how sociology has privileged White ideals, culture, and interpretations ( Bonilla-Silva 2003; Zuberi and Bonilla-Silva 2008; Omi and Winant 2015).

The work of sociologists Michael Omi (1951–), Howard Winant (1946–), Eduardo Bonilla-Silva (1962–), and Joe Feagin (1938–) align with this framework. We will explore these in more detail in Chapter 11.

Licenses and Attributions for Social Theory Today

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“Social Theory Today” by Matthew Gougherty is licensed under CC BY 4.0

“Feminist Theory” by Jennifer Puentes is licensed under CC BY 4.0

“Activity: Feminism and Pizza” by Jennifer Puentes is licensed under CC BY 4.0.

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“Feminist Theory” definition from “Foundations of Feminist Criminology” by Shereen Hassan and Dan Lett, Introduction to Criminology, Kwantlen Polytechnic University, is licensed under CC BY 4.0.

“Intersectionality” definition adapted from “Glossary” by Shereen Hassan and Dan Lett, Introduction to Criminology, Kwantlen Polytechnic University, which is licensed under CC BY 4.0. Edited for consistency.

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Figure 2.17. “On Intersectionality in Feminism and Pizza | Akilah Obviously” by Akilah Obviously is shared under the Standard YouTube License.

Figure 2.18. “On Critical Race Theory: Experts Break Down What it Actually Mean” by The Washington Post is shared under the Standard YouTube License.