Sociologists examine the social world, see a problem or interesting pattern, and set out to study it. Just as Matthew Desmond approached his study on evictions in Milwaukee, researchers must decide what methodology to use when designing a study.

Planning the research design is a key step in any sociological study. Sociologists generally choose from widely used methods of social investigation. Primary source data collection, such as through surveys, participant observation, ethnography, case studies, unobtrusive observations, and experiments, refers to data collection conducted by the researcher. Secondary data analysis, or the use of existing sources, occurs when the researcher examines data that was previously collected and has been made available by the original researcher.

There are benefits and limitations to every research method. The topic of study and your research question strongly influence the methodology you select. When you are conducting research, think about the best way to gather knowledge about your topic. For instance, think of yourself as an architect. An architect needs a blueprint to build a house; as a sociologist, your blueprint is your research design, including your data collection method.

When entering a particular social environment, a researcher must be thoughtful. There are times to remain anonymous and times to be overt. Occasionally, we conduct covert research, during which people do not know they are being observed. Can you think of times when this would be the best approach to data collection?

Making sociologists’ presence invisible is not always realistic. For example, researchers can’t just stroll into prisons or kindergarten classrooms and unobtrusively observe behaviors. In situations like these, other methods are needed. Researchers choose methods that best suit their study topics, protect research participants or subjects, and fit with their overall approaches to research.

Qualitative, Quantitative, or Mixed Methodology in Social Science Research

Quantitative research tends to refer to research that uses numerical data; the social world and experiences are translated into numbers that can be examined mathematically through statistical analysis. For example, we can learn a great deal about large populations through surveys, but we might miss some of the interactional processes and other data better collected through direct observation. Qualitative research tends to work with non-numerical data and attempts to understand the experiences of individuals and groups from their perspectives. With qualitative approaches, researchers examine how groups participate in their own meaning-making and development of culture. Researchers who use this approach may use ethnography, in-depth interviews, focus groups, and/or content analysis to examine social life. Qualitative data may also involve the reading of texts and images. In the next section, we will explore some of these methodologies in greater detail.

Mixed methods research refers to the process of combining more than one method when conducting sociological research. This approach may help researchers gain a better understanding of the topic they are studying. Some research, like community-based research, focuses on improving social conditions in local communities by establishing partnerships between organizations and researchers.

Sociologists consider the benefits and limitations of each method to determine how they will design their study. For example, Desmond (2016) primarily used qualitative research methods to learn about the experiences of families in poverty who experienced eviction. Desmond lived and worked in the same communities as the people he studied, and he talked with them about their experiences. This qualitative approach offers us great insight into lived experiences and interactions that are observable. Desmond paired his qualitative approach with quantitative methods, specifically statistical analysis to learn more about larger patterns related to evictions in the United States. He learned that what he observed in the families he studied was part of a larger trend in the country—evictions create more poverty for people who have low incomes. In the next section, you will learn how researchers use reliability, validity, and generalizability to evaluate studies.

Evaluating Research Methodologies

Researchers design studies to maximize reliability, which refers to how likely research results are to be replicated if the study is reproduced. Reliability increases the likelihood that what happens to one person will happen to all people in a group or that what happens in one situation will happen in another. For instance, baking is a science. When you follow a recipe and measure ingredients with a standardized tool, such as a measuring cup, the same results are obtained as long as the cook follows the same recipe. The measuring cup introduces accuracy into the process. If a person uses a less accurate tool, such as their hand, the same result may not be replicated. Accurate tools and methods increase reliability.

Researchers also strive for validity, which refers to how well the study measures what it was designed to measure. To produce reliable and valid results, sociologists develop an operational definition—that is, they define each concept, or variable, in terms of the physical or concrete steps it takes to objectively measure it. The operational definition identifies an observable condition of the concept. By operationalizing the concept, all researchers can collect data in a systematic or replicable manner.

Generalizability is the degree to which the results of a study can be applied to a larger population. As you learned in this chapter, not all research methods are designed to produce generalizable results. Instead, qualitative research offers depth and nuance to the topic being studied.

Licenses and Attributions for Research Methods

Open Content, Original

“Research Methods” by Jennifer Puentes is licensed under CC BY 4.0.

Open Content, Shared Previously

“Research Methods” second paragraph, first two sentences of fourth paragraph, first four sentences of fifth paragraph are from “2.2 Research Methods” by Tonja R. Conerly, Kathleen Holmes, Asha Lal Tamang, Introduction to Sociology 3e, OpenStax, which is licensed under CC BY 4.0. Edited for consistency and brevity.

“Ethnography” definition is from “Ch. 2 Key Terms” by Heather Griffiths and Nathan Keirns, Introduction to Sociology 3e, OpenStax, which is licensed under CC BY 4.0.

“Evaluating Research Methodologies” is edited and remixed from “2.1 Approaches to Social Research” by Tonja R. Conerly, Kathleen Holmes, Asha Lal Tamang in Introduction to Sociology 3e, OpenStax, which is licensed under CC BY 4.0.

“Generalizability” definition is from “Glossary” by Shereen Hassan and Dan Lett, Introduction to Criminology, Kwantlen Polytechnic University, which is licensed under CC BY 4.0.