The first two parts of this chapter focused on the ways an inaccurate past affects human services students, clients, and professionals as well as ways to reinterpret the past to bring more truth about ways that communities of color impacted the field of human services. In this section we describe some of the skills and understandings that have emerged as best practices. To begin, let’s discuss the major dimensions of diversity, or the aspects of social identity that all of us possess. It is one step toward creating a more just future for all of those participating in human services and social welfare.

2.5.1 Dimensions of Diversity

Respect for diversity has been established as a core value in human services. In fact the preamble of the Ethical Standards of Conduct refers to diversity twice in the opening paragraphs. Appreciating diversity includes understanding dimensions of diversity and how to work within a wide range of individual and community contexts, but also includes a consideration of how to work within systems of inequality. Human services professionals must be mindful of diverse perspectives and experiences when working with clients, consulting with peers, conducting research, and designing interventions. At the same time, they must be aware of the macro level of problems that people face, and work to combat oppression and promote justice. Although it is impossible to discuss all of the dimensions of human diversity in this section, we present some common dimensions that are also aspects of each person’s social identities.

2.5.1.1 Culture

Figure 2.5. Culture can be shared within a specific racial or ethnic group, but also across groups. “Culture is something that unites people.” by Exchanges Photos is licensed under CC0 1.0

While numerous definitions for culture are available, key defining components include shared meanings and shared experiences by members in a group, that are passed down over time with each generation (figure 2.5). That is, cultures have shared beliefs, values, practices, definitions, and other elements that are expressed through family socialization, formal schooling, shared language, social roles, and norms for feeling, thinking, and acting (Cohen, 2009).

Culture in today’s society refers to more than just cultural and ethnic groups but also includes groups who are connected via religion, sexuality, geography, or other characteristics. Culture can be examined at multiple ecological levels to understand its impact. This means that culture can influence the norms and practices of individuals, families, organizations, local communities, and the broader society. For example, cultural influences can have an impact on how members function and interact with one another. Culture should be understood within a broader context of power relationships, and how power is used and distributed (Trickett, 2011).

2.5.1.2 Race

Figure 2.6. Race has been proven to be a social construction without biological foundations.

While physical differences often are used to define race, there is no consensus for this term. Typically, race has been defined using observable physical or biological criteria, such as skin color, hair color or texture, facial features, etc (figure 2.6). Biologists, anthropologists, psychologists, and other scientists, however, have determined that these biological assumptions of race are false and have been used to harm members of marginalized groups.

Research has proven no biological foundations to race and that human racial groups are more alike than different; in fact, most genetic variation exists within racial groups rather than between groups. Therefore, racial differences in areas such as academics or intelligence are not based on biological differences but are instead related to economic, historical, and social factors such as the search for power and control via colonization (Betancourt & Lopez, 1993).

Instead, race has been socially constructed and has different social and psychological meanings in many societies (Betancourt & Lopez, 1993). In the US, Black, Indigenous and People of Color (BIPOC) experience more racial prejudice and discrimination than White people. The meanings and definitions of race have also changed over time and are often driven by policies and laws. The social construction of difference in both race and gender is discussed more thoroughly in the next section.

2.5.1.3 Ethnicity

Figure 2.7 Ethnicity can be related to nationality, but it is its own identity.

Ethnicity refers to one’s social identity based on the culture of origin, ancestry, or affiliation with a cultural group (figure 2.7). Ethnicity is not the same as nationality, which is a person’s status of belonging to a specific nation by birth or citizenship (e.g., an individual can be of Japanese ethnicity but British nationality because they were born in the United Kingdom). Ethnicity is defined by aspects of subjective culture such as customs, language, and social ties (Resnicow, Braithwaite, Ahluwalia, & Baranowski, 1999).

While ethnic groups are combined into broad categories, or umbrella groups, for research or demographic purposes in the US, there are actually many more specifically defined ethnicities that do not appear on documents. For example, there may be a check box for “Latino” but people who are in this umbrella group are more likely to identify with a specific country, region, or nationality. Latina/e/o/x may refer to persons of Mexican, Puerto Rican, Cuban, Spanish, Dominican, or many other ancestries. Asian Americans have roots from over 20 countries in Asia and India, with the six largest Asian ethnic subgroups in the United States being the Chinese, Asian Indians, Filipinos, Vietnamese, Koreans, and Japanese

2.5.1.4 Origin and First Language

Figure 2.8 A person’s place of birth, where they spend their early years, and the first language that they learn are all aspects of their social identities.

Origin refers to the geographical location that a person was born and spent (at least) their early years in. This includes regions of the United States, as well as other countries. A person’s origin will impact the cultural norms that influence them during their early childhood development, or perhaps longer. In addition, it impacts their first language.

First language refers to the language learned in early childhood. This language may be learned in the home, in a child care setting, and in greater society. Even within the United States, there are regional differences in the English language, as well as the possibility that a language other than English is spoken in the home.

Origin and first language are closely tied to culture and ethnicity, but there are differentiations as well. For example, a Filipino person may have grown up in the Philippines, as pictured in figure 2.8 which shows a young child looking at the ocean in the Philippines. They could have been born in the mainland United States, or in Hawaii. In the Philippines, while the official languages are English and Filipino, there are 183 living languages, many of which are Indigenous. A person growing up there might speak one or more of these languages. A Filipino person growing up on the mainland of the United States would likely learn English, but may also use a Filipino language at home. A Filipino person growing up in Hawaii might be exposed to English, the Hawaiian language (although banned in 1898 when Hawaii became a territory of the United States, there are still remnants) and a Filipino language. Because the Hawaiian language and Filipino language are from the same language family, there may be additional crossover. As this simplified example illustrates, there is the possibility of great diversity both amongst and within people who share a similar origin or first language.

2.5.1.5 Gender and Sex

Figure 2.9. When we let go of the idea that gender is binary (male or female) there are many ways that we can view ourselves and others. .

Gender refers to the socially constructed perceptions of what it means to be male, female or nonbinary in the way you present to society (figure 2.9). In the past it was more common to see gender in a binary way, either male or female, but increasingly gender is seen more on a continuum. Gender is different from sex, which is a biological descriptor involving chromosomes and internal/external reproductive organs. Sex is also less binary than we might expect, a small percentage of people are known to be born as “intersex” meaning that they have primary and secondary sexual characteristics that are both biologically male and biologically female.

As a socially constructed concept, gender has magnified the perceived differences between females and males leading to limitations in attitudes, roles, and how social institutions are organized. For example, how do gender norms influence types of jobs viewed as appropriate or not appropriate for women or men? How are household or parenting responsibilities divided between men and women?

Gender is not just a demographic category but it also influences gender norms, the distribution of power and resources, access to opportunities, and other important processes (Bond, 1999). For those who live outside of these traditional expectations for gender, the experience can be challenging. In general, the binary categories for sex, gender, and gender identity have received the most attention from both society and the research community, with only more attention to other gender identities (e.g., gender-neutral, transgender, nonbinary, and GenderQueer) in recent years (Kosciw, Palmer, & Kull, 2015).

The attention to other gender identities, and to changing gender identities, is increasing, both academically and publicly. Nicole Maines, a successful actor who portrays television’s first transgender superhero in Supergirl, filed an anonymous lawsuit which resulted in a victory when the Maine Supreme Judicial Court ruled that she had been excluded from the school restroom because of her transgender identity. This was the first state court to rule that barring transgender students from the school bathroom that matches their gender identity is unlawful (The Washington Post, 2015).

2.5.1.6 Sexuality

Figure 2.10. Many celebrated marriage equality in 2015.

Sexuality refers to a person’s emotional, romantic, erotic, physical, and spiritual attractions toward another in relation to their own sex or gender.Sexuality exists on a continuum or multiple continuums and crosses all dimensions of diversity (e.g., race, ethnicity, social class, ability, religion, etc.). Sexuality is different from sex, gender identity, or gender expression. Over time, gay, lesbian, asexual, and bisexual identities have extended to other sexualities such as pansexual, polysexual, and fluid, and increasingly more research is being conducted on these populations (Kosciw et al., 2015). Members of the LGBTQ+ communities have been historically marginalized and oppressed, facing both legal restrictions and social stigma. One step forward was the legalization of same-sex marriage in the U.S. as pictured in figure 2.10.

2.5.1.7 Age

Figure 2.11. Many older people are active and self-sufficient, despite stereotypes of the opposite.

Age describes the developmental changes and transitions that come with being a child, adolescent, or adult. Power dynamics, relationships, physical and psychological health concerns, community participation, and life satisfaction varies for individual members of these different age groups (Cheng & Heller, 2009).

There are age stereotypes that contribute to ageism and adultism. Ageism usually refers to the negative stereotypes around aging, specifically in later years. Stereotypes that characterize older people as slow, frail, incapable, out-of-touch, or grumpy are harmful. Although the skills, values, and training of human services professionals can make a difference in the lives of older adults, the attitudes within our profession and society are barriers. Seeing both older adults and young children as capable, as pictured in figure 2.11, is key to being strengths-based in your approach to working with them. Adultism refers to the power that adults have over children, and the belief that it is alright to exert that power over them without their input or participation in decision making. (Bell, 1995).

2.5.1.8 Socioeconomic Status

Figure 2.12. Education, both K-12 and college, is a way to increase your socioeconomic status.

Socioeconomic status (SES) is a way of describing an individual’s or family’s status that includes three components: education, income, and employment (figure 2.12). The education component refers to the highest level of education completed, typically: high school, certificate, college, or advanced degrees. Income includes not just wages, but sources such as stocks, bonds or real estate as well as inherited wealth. Employment refers to the level of status that one’s job or career has within society. Employment status may or may not be equivalent to level of education or salary. For example, while college professors may have similar educational levels and status as doctors, it is likely that doctors make a higher salary.

Socioeconomic status is a complex combination of factors that indicates difference in power, privilege, economic opportunities, and resources. It will also relate to a person’s social capital, the relationships and networks that each person has available to them. For example, the college professor might be more likely to be able to connect one of their children or friends to a job with a researcher, whereas the doctor might be able to connect an ill family member with a colleague who is an expert in medical specialty.

Socioeconomic status and culture shapes a person’s worldview or understanding of the world.It influences how they feel, act, and fit in. It also impacts the schools they attend, the health care they have access to, or the jobs they have throughout life. The differences in norms, values, and practices between social classes can also have impacts on parenting, well-being and health outcomes (Cohen, 2009).

2.5.1.9 Ability and Disability

Figure 2.13. Each person with a disability is unique, and many interact in social and athletic settings such as the Special Olympics.

Disabilities refer to visible or hidden and temporary or permanent conditions that provide barriers or challenges, and impact individuals of every age and social group (figure 2.13). In the past disability was viewed from a medical model, primarily explaining diagnosis and treatment models from a pathological perspective (Goodley & Lawthom, 2010). In this traditional approach, individuals diagnosed with a disability are often discussed as objects of study instead of complex individuals impacted by their environment.

The more current social model views ability and diagnoses from a social and environmental perspective and considers multiple ecological levels. The experiences of individuals are strongly valued in this model, and community-based participatory research is a valuable way to explore experiences while empowering members of a community with varying levels of ability/disability.

Identifying who has a disability or health condition can also be a challenge and can have real, tangible consequences for an affected person or group. For example, if prevalence research suggests that a particular disability or health condition is relatively rare, it is possible that few federal and state resources will be devoted to those individuals. But if the methodology for selecting individuals with that condition is flawed, then the prevalence rates will be inaccurate and potentially biased. This is what occurred with the health condition known as chronic fatigue syndrome, now also known as myalgic encephalomyelitis, as shown in the following case study.

2.5.1.10 Religion and Spirituality

Figure 2.15. Symbolism is often integrated with religious and spiritual beliefs.

Definitions of religion typically include shared systems of beliefs and values, symbols, feelings, actions, experiences, and a source of community unity (figure 2.15) . Religion emphasizes beliefs and practices, relationships with the divine, and faith, all of which differentiate it from common definitions of culture. Further, religion is an important predictor for well-being, satisfaction, and other life outcomes (Tarakeshwar, Stanton, & Pargament, 2003).

Religion and spirituality were formerly considered a joint concept but have been differentiated in the past century. Definitions of spirituality typically focus on a connection to something larger than you (a higher power), a quest for meaning, and a commitment to live each day in a sacred manner (Brady, 2020). The differentiation between religion and spirituality has become more relevant recently as many individuals consider themselves more spiritual than they are religious.

The importance of religion and spirituality to physical and emotional well-being and a strong sense of community merits the inclusion of both, in research and practice (Tarakeshwar et al., 2003). Collaboration with religious organizations and embedding interventions into these settings may have positive impacts on individuals in the community and may also help religious organizations reach goals. If religious organizations exclude or condemn people based on other social characteristics (e.g. race, sexuality, gender), however, then this could present a conflict for human services professionals who are committed to equity in service.

2.5.3 Privilege and the Dimensions of Diversity

Figure 2.16. “#Black Lives Matter” is a social movement that emphasizes the real impacts of privilege and oppression.

Privilege, or the unearned advantages that individuals have based on membership in a dominant group (e.g., race, gender, social class, sexuality, ability), contribute to the systems of oppression for non-privileged individuals and groups. While privilege can come in multiple forms and individuals can have multiple privileges; White privilege, or the advantages that White people have in society, are important for psychologists to examine more extensively to understand how White people participate in systems of oppression for racial minority groups in the United States (Todd, McConnell, & Suffin, 2014). As discussed earlier in this chapter, Black and Indiginous people have been actively oppressed; activism such as pictured in 2.12, is one way that awareness has been increased.

White experiences and perspectives tend to be pervasive in curriculum, policy, pedagogy, and practices at the exclusion of work and research by people of color (Suyemoto & Fox Tree, 2006). This results in systems of privilege and oppression in society.

While the various dimensions of diversity discussed in the previous sections are a start to understanding human diversity, they do not fully describe an individual, community, or population. Instead, we as human services professionals must consider that these dimensions do not exist independently of each other. The following sections will explore how social constructivism, intersectionality, and the practice of cultural humility inform our understanding of the dimensions of diversity.

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