The broad profession of human services includes working with a variety of people and dealing with differing life problems in a wide range of settings. Professionals may work with entire families, an individual, or a subset of members in a family. This chapter describes many of those populations, the problems they confront, and some of the settings in which service is provided. We will frame this discussion by first distinguishing family form from family function and providing the frameworks for two theories: the psychosocial theory of lifespan development and the family systems theory.

5.3.1 Family Forms and Functions

Families come in many forms, and variations of adults with children, and those without children. Family forms include parents who are married, living together, divorced, stepparents, adoptive parents, single parents, grandparents in parenting roles and foster parents. Forms may include blended and step families, half-siblings, and step-siblings. The form of any household may include more than two generations or people who are not related legally or by blood. All of these are differing forms, or structures of family life. The family form is merely the physical makeup of the family members in relationship to one another. These differing forms are sometimes called the “complexities” of family life in academic literature. The form does not indicate how healthy the family is, or how well the family functions (figures 5.1 and 5.2).

Families are a foundational unit for love, support, and socialization in the United States. However, families are not always able to provide such an environment for all of its members. There are many different situations in which human services professionals need to provide family or child-related services in order to meet the needs of the family as the client, the individual family members as the clients, or both.

It is important for human services professionals to understand that a family’s form does not dictate how well the family functions. As professionals, we must counter the societal bias that tells us that there is an idealized family type: the nuclear family that consists of two heterosexual adults, most often pictured as White and middle class, with two children. This image is strongly ingrained in our culture that many of us have internalized it as the “norm” of family life, and may see other families as having a deficit.

Figure 5.1 Some families include children.

Figure 5.2 Some families do not include children.

Families function in a range of ways and differently over time. How well does any given family function? It includes the functionality of each individual family member, the functionality of any two members’ relationship, and the overall functionality of the entire family. What indicates healthy functionality? Here are a couple of indicators:

• respect for the individuality of each family member
• communication that is direct, but not purposefully harmful or painful
• commitment to each other
• parent(s) who prioritize their children’s needs within the context of their culture and beliefs

It is important to understand and to separate form and functionality. Because many of our social institutions identify one kind of family as “the norm” it is easy to assume that somehow other kinds of families are “less than.” That is not the case. Family forms have developed and changed over time. Every culture has its own values and beliefs related to family life. It is critical to note that there are many well functioning families that include single or gay parents, or who are poor, who have been incarcerated, who have lots of children, or have no children. All families face challenges, and families that look “perfect” on the outside may have dysfunctions. As you navigate your career and your work, do your best to remind yourself of this, because the societal message is often the opposite. Throughout this text we discuss families who may not fit that idealized family form, but who are just as likely to have loving functional relationships within their family.

5.3.2 Psychosocial Theory

The psychosocial model, created by Erik Erikson with the assistance of Joan Erikson, gives us a guideline for the entire lifespan and suggests certain primary psychological and social concerns throughout life. Human services professionals work with people of all ages, and the psychosocial theory offers one possible framework to discuss the various needs that occur throughout the lifespan. The theory emphasizes the importance of conscious thought and how our relationships and society’s expectations motivate much of our behavior.. We introduce this theory now because we will focus on particular aspects and stages of the theory in later chapters about children and about older adults.

As human services professionals it is important to understand stages of lifespan development and the role that parenting plays in this development. The lifespan theory highlights the importance of culture in parenting practices and personal motivations. Humans are motivated, for instance, by the need to feel that the world is a trustworthy place, that we are capable individuals, that we can make a contribution to society, and that we have lived a meaningful life. These are all psychosocial problems.

The theory divides the lifespan into eight stages. In each stage, we have a major psychosocial task to accomplish or crisis to overcome. Erik Erikson included three stages of adult development as well; his wife Joan Erikson added an additional stage following his death. Both theorists believed that our personality continues to take shape throughout our lifespan as we face these challenges in living. Figure 5.3 shows a brief overview of the theory including the ninth stage of development:

5.3.3 Stages of Development: Psychosocial Theory

Figure 5.3. These nine states of development encompass infancy through elderly adulthood.

These stages form a foundation for discussions on emotional and social development during the lifespan. Keep in mind, however, that these stages or crises can occur more than once. For instance, a person may struggle with a lack of trust beyond infancy under certain circumstances.

Erikson’s theory has been criticized for focusing so heavily on stages and assuming that the completion of one stage is prerequisite for the next crisis of development. The theory also focuses on the social expectations that are found in certain cultures, but not in all. For instance, the idea that adolescence is a time of searching for identity might translate well in the middle-class culture of the United States, but not as well in cultures where the transition into adulthood coincides with puberty through rites of passage and where adult roles offer fewer choices. Still, this is the most comprehensive theory we have for articulating lifespan changes and development.

5.3.4 Family Systems Theory

As important as having a general comprehension of individual development, it is critical to know that an individual can be understood best by seeing them within the context of their family. An integral part to understanding families, assessing need, and identifying appropriate intervention strategies is the application of systems theory to the family as a whole. Systems theory is a basic approach used in human services when working with clients to get a better understanding of the bi-directional impact of their interactions with different systems. Another significant part of systems theory is that all systems are made up of smaller systems. Using the family systems theory to view families as client systems, not only can we identify and assess the various systems with which they interact, but also view the family as more than just a collection of individuals. Instead the individual systems can be thought of in terms of how their interactions and “processes” help the family function in a healthy and effective manner.

The following are three guiding principles of the family system that allow us to better understand them:

1. No individual can be understood without looking at how [they fit] into the whole of the family. It is not about the individual, but about how the individual interacts with the other people – parts of the system – within the family. Family members do not live in bubbles and their circumstances, behavior, and cognitions are influenced by the other systems with which they come in contact. Moving up to the family as a whole, the same holds true at this system level. Families are not solitary systems and need to be understood in the context of the systems with which they interrelate.
2. Families need rules for structure and rules for change. All families have an innate structure that guides their day-to-day functioning. This structure lets the different family members know how they should behave and guides the interactions of the group. Rules for change, on the other hand, direct members in times when the family’s homeostasis or current way of functioning is disrupted and requires the family members to adjust until equilibrium is returned or until a new structure is established.
3. Interaction of the family with the school, community, extended family, and friendship circle is essential to the life of the immediate family. In our society today, families cannot get all their needs met by themselves. It is essential that the family and its members interact with other systems in order to provide for a healthy nurturing environment for everyone. Other than the systems the principle mentioned, families connect with habitat, work, religious or spiritual, healthcare, protective (law enforcement), and entertainment systems to name a few. All systems with which the family and its members interact serve some function to the quality of life of the family. (Lambie, 2008)

When working with families through the lens of systems theory, we can assess each of these three areas to have a better understanding of what issues are present and where the need is.

No matter their level of functioning, these three aspects of the family system hold true for all families. Families address them in a wide range of ways that may have positive and healthy impacts or be detrimental to their functioning. It is important to note that what works in one family may not work in another. For example, a family’s religious and cultural values may be integral to the ways that they function.

Where families’ needs are not being met can influence how the principles of families as systems manifest. A child from a family that lacks housing and food might have a flat affect, avoid interaction with other children in school, and be unfocused in class. Families with a member who is experiencing alcoholism may develop a structure that allows them to compensate in areas of work, child care, or the provision of basic needs. While this structure may guide the family’s day-to-day life, it is not a healthy environment for all members because it does not provide a safe environment that fosters positive development. Since human services workers need to know how the family system works and why it works that way, family systems theory gives a great outline on how to determine the answers to these questions.

When you read the upcoming sections about children and older adults, you will learn about theories that specialize in these parts of the lifespan, as well as contextualizing those stages with the psychosocial and family systems perspectives.

5.3.5 References

Lambie, R. (2008). Family systems within educational & community contexts (3rd ed.). Love Publishing Company.