One of the most important aspects of learning about families and equity is you, the learner. In order for your brain to change, to adapt, to assimilate new information you will need to work at it. Reading, writing, and discussing the material is not enough. It’s a start, but the disposition that you bring to this experience will make a large impact on what you learn.

• Are you willing to set aside existing assumptions and ideas when you read something that doesn’t make sense to you at first?
• Are you willing to question beliefs that may be ingrained in multiple generations of your own family or kinship group?
• Are you willing to be uncomfortable during this learning process?
• Will you work to “listen” to others that have different social identities than your own?

Dispositions that are open to trying out new ideas and ways of thinking will help you learn and your brain grow new understandings and neural pathways. We will talk about three learning dispositions here: cognitive and emotional perspective-taking, objectivity, and cultural humility.

2.4.1 Cognitive and Emotional Perspective-Taking

To understand the diversity of family experiences in the United States, students will need to practice “putting yourself in another person’s shoes.” Seeing that people have beliefs, values, emotions, and responses that can overlap with and differ from our own will expose the richness and depth of family life. It is important to note that we cannot always predict how we (or someone else!) will respond given a particular circumstance. Instead, it is our work as students to “listen,” understand, and learn more about what families experience and how they function in the United States. In particular, it is critical to listen to those we perceive as belonging to different social groups than ourselves. By adopting an attitude of listening, rather than an attitude of judging, we will increase our knowledge base.

2.4.2 Objectivity and Humanity

Every human being has a unique set of characteristics, experiences, and beliefs. Part of what makes us human is the ability to think, reflect, and form conclusions based on our particular set of circumstances. This is likewise true of social scientists, the human beings who study other humans, our social groups, and interactions. We rely on empirical research, data collected and analyzed by social scientists, to learn about individuals and families. These scientists emerge from a variety of disciplines including anthropology, education, human development and family sciences, psychology, and sociology.

Sociologists embrace the research principle of objectivity, the act of setting aside their own beliefs and experiences in order to conduct unbiased study or analysis of their subjects. Creating objectivity is considered crucial to the scientific process which includes formulating a hypothesis that is then tested via the collection and analysis of information. At the same time, we must acknowledge that this method was created and validated almost exclusively by people of one gender and one race (male and European, or White) and there is room for refinement of this thinking.

The feminist perspective (described later in this chapter in “Theoretical Perspectives and Key Concepts” and the table in Figure 2.14) introduces some complexity to the idea of objectivity by emphasizing that in order to truly understand our social structure, researchers must acknowledge that every human being (themselves included) brings their own viewpoint based on their unique set of social characteristics to their work. The intersection of our gender, ethnicity, race, age, sexuality, ability, and other identities along with our own life experiences makes each of us unique. Scientists must understand their own perspective, or bias, in order to do their best to both recognize the impact of their own viewpoint and to attempt to set it aside while collecting and analyzing information.

2.4.3 Cultural Humility

Figure 2.3.Listening to other people is key to understanding them.

Cultural humility is the ability to remain open to learning about other cultures while acknowledging one’s own lack of competence and recognizing power dynamics that impact the relationship (Figure 2.3). Within cultural humility it is important to engage in continuous self-reflection, recognize the impact of power dynamics on individuals and communities, embrace “not knowing,” and commit to lifelong learning. This approach to diversity encourages a curious spirit and the ability to openly engage with others in the process of learning about a different culture. As a result, it is important to address power imbalances and develop meaningful relationships with community members in order to create positive change.

As our world becomes increasingly diverse and interconnected, understanding different cultures becomes crucial. Without a basic understanding of the beliefs and experiences of individuals, people can unintentionally contribute to prejudice and discrimination or negatively impact relationships and interactions. To understand cultural experiences, it is important to consider the context of social identity, history, and individual and community experiences with prejudice and discrimination. It is also important to acknowledge that our understanding of cultural differences evolves through an ongoing learning process (Tervalon & Murray-Garcia, 1998).

The next section includes dimensions of diversity that are related to culture. You will notice that many of these dimensions correspond with the Social Identity Wheel that was introduced in Chapter 1 of this text.

2.4.4 Dimensions of Diversity

Although it is impossible to discuss all of the dimensions of human diversity in this section, we present some common dimensions that will be discussed in this text. The authors also acknowledge the importance of intersectionality, which was described in Chapter 1 and the process of cultural humility in understanding diversity.

2.4.4.1 Culture

“Culture is something that unites people.” –Anastasiya O., Russia

Culture is an important dimension of diversity for students to examine. In general, culture has been challenging to define, with modern definitions viewing culture as a dynamic concept that changes individuals and societies together over time. Further, culture in today’s society refers to more than just cultural and ethnic groups but also includes racial groups, religious groups, sexual minority groups, socioeconomic groups, nation-states, and corporations.

While numerous definitions exist, the key components of culture include shared meanings and shared experiences by individuals in a group that are passed down over time with each generation. That is, cultures have shared beliefs, values, practices, definitions, and other elements that are expressed through family socialization, formal schooling, shared language, social roles, and norms for feeling, thinking, and acting (Cohen, 2009).

Culture can be examined at multiple ecological levels to understand its impact. This means that culture can influence the norms and practices of individuals, families, organizations, local communities, and the broader society. For example, cultural influences can have an impact on how members function and interact with one another. Further, culture should be understood within a broader context of power relationships, and how power is used and distributed (Trickett, 2011).

2.4.4.2 Race

Figure 2.4. Most genetic variation exists within racial groups rather than between groups.

While physical differences often are used to define race, in general, there is no consensus for this term. Typically, race has been defined using observable physical or biological criteria, such as skin color, hair color or texture, facial features, and so forth (Figure 2.4). However, these biological assumptions of race have been determined to be inaccurate and harmful by biologists, anthropologists, psychologists, and other scientists.

Research has proven no biological foundations to race and that human racial groups are more alike than different; in fact, most genetic variation exists within racial groups rather than between groups. Therefore, racial differences in areas such as academics or intelligence are not based on biological differences but are instead related to economic, historical, and social factors (Betancourt & Lopez, 1993).

Instead, race has been socially constructed and has different social and psychological meanings in many societies (Betancourt & Lopez, 1993). In the US, people of color experience more racial prejudice and discrimination than White people. The meanings and definitions of race have also changed over time and are often driven by policies and laws (e.g., one-drop rule or laws). It can be concluded that although race is not based on biological differences, it has still fundamentally influenced our social structures and has harmed dark-skinned people in many ways.

2.4.4.4 Ethnicity

Ethnicity refers to one’s social identity based on the culture of origin, ancestry, or affiliation with a cultural group (Pinderhughes, 1989). Ethnicity is not the same as nationality, which is a person’s status of belonging to a specific nation by birth or citizenship. For example, an individual can be of Japanese ethnicity but British nationality because they were born in the United Kingdom. Ethnicity is defined by aspects of subjective culture such as customs, language, and social ties (Figure 2.6; Resnicow et al., 1999).

Figure 2.6. Asian Americans have roots in over 20 countries in Asia and India.

While ethnic groups are combined into broad categories for research or demographic purposes in the US, there are many ethnicities among the ones you may be familiar with. Latina/o/x or Hispanic may refer to persons of Mexican, Puerto Rican, Cuban, Spanish, Dominican, or many other ancestries. Asian Americans have roots in over 20 countries in Asia and India, with the six largest Asian ethnic subgroups in the United States being the Chinese, Asian Indians, Filipinos, Vietnamese, Koreans, and Japanese.

2.4.4.5 Origin and First Language

Origin refers to the geographical location where a person was born and spent (at least) their early years in. This includes regions of the United States, as well as other countries. A person’s origin will impact the cultural norms that influence them during their early childhood development, or perhaps longer. In addition, it may mean that their first language is not English. First language refers to the language learned in early childhood. This language may be learned in the home, in a childcare setting, and in greater society. Even within the United States, there are regional differences in language.

Origin and first language are closely tied to culture and ethnicity, but there are differentiations as well. For example, a Filipino person may have grown up in the Philippines, the mainland United States, or in Hawaii. In the Philippines, while the official languages are English and Filipino, there are 183 living languages, many of which are Indigenous. A person growing up there might speak one or more of these languages. A Filipino person growing up on the mainland of the United States would likely learn English, but may also use the Filipino language at home. A Filipino person growing up in Hawaii might be exposed to English, the Hawaiian language (although banned in 1898, there are still remnants), and the Filipino language. Because the Hawaiian language and Filipino language are from the same language family, there may be an additional crossover. As this simplified example illustrates, there is the possibility of great diversity both among and within people who share a similar origin or first language.

2.4.4.6 Gender and Sex

Gender refers to the socially constructed perceptions of what it means to be male or female in our society and how those genders may be reflected and interpreted by society. Gender is different from sex, which is a biological descriptor involving chromosomes and internal/external reproductive organs (Figure 2.7) that is typically assigned at birth. As a socially constructed concept, gender has magnified the perceived differences between females and males leading to limitations in attitudes, roles, and how social institutions are organized. For example, how do gender norms influence types of jobs viewed as appropriate or not appropriate for women or men? How are household or parenting responsibilities divided between men and women?

Figure 2.7. Gender identity is determined by the individual and may be different from the sex assigned at birth.

Gender is not just a demographic category but also influences gender norms, the distribution of power and resources, access to opportunities, and other important processes (Bond, 1999). For those who live outside of these traditional expectations for gender, the experience can be challenging. In general, the binary categories for sex, gender, gender identity, and so forth have received the most attention from both society and the research community, with only more attention to other gender identities (e.g., gender-neutral, transgender, nonbinary, and gender queer) in recent years (Kosciw et al., 2015).

But the attention to other gender identities is increasing, both academically and publicly. One example is the case of Nicole Maines challenging her elementary school’s restroom policy, which resulted in a victory when the Maine Supreme Judicial Court ruled that she had been excluded from the restroom because of her transgender identity. While community psychologists are making efforts to conduct more research on the various gender identities on the gender spectrum, more research needs to continue in this area.

2.4.4.7 Age

Figure 2.8. Age describes the developmental changes and transitions that come with being a child, adolescent, or adult.

Age describes the developmental changes and transitions that come with being a child, adolescent, or adult (Figure 2.8). Power dynamics, relationships, physical and psychological health concerns, community participation, life satisfaction, and so forth can all vary for these different age groups (Cheng & Heller, 2009). Although the field has started to include aging issues in research, Cheng and Heller searched for publications on older adults in major Community Psychology journals and found that this segment of the population has been neglected (Cheng & Heller, 2009). Although the skills, values, and training of community psychologists would likely make a difference in the lives of older adults, the attitudes within our profession and society are current barriers.

2.4.4.8 Social Class

Figure 2.9. Social class can include a person’s income or material wealth, educational status, occupational status, and/or housing status.

Like the other components of diversity, social class is socially constructed and can affect our choices and opportunities (Figure 2.9). Social class can include a person’s income or material wealth, educational status, and/or occupational status. It can include assumptions about where a person belongs in society and indicate differences in power, privilege, economic opportunities and resources, and social capital. Social class and culture can also shape a person’s worldview or understanding of the world; influencing how they feel, act, and fit in; and impacting the types of schools they attend, access to health care, or jobs they work at throughout life. The differences in norms, values, and practices between lower and upper social classes can also have impacts on well-being and health outcomes (Cohen, 2009).

2.4.4.9 Sexual Orientation

Figure 2.10. Sexual orientation is different from gender identity or gender expression.

Sexual orientation refers to a person’s emotional, romantic, erotic, and spiritual attraction toward another in relation to their own sex or gender (Figure 2.10). The definition focuses on feelings rather than behaviors since individuals who identify with a minority sexual orientation experience significant stigma and oppression in our society (Flanders et al., 2016). Sexual orientation exists on a continuum or multiple continuums and crosses all dimensions of diversity (e.g., race, ethnicity, social class, ability, religion, etc.).

Sexual orientation is different from gender identity or gender expression. Over time, gay, lesbian, asexual, and bisexual identities have extended to other sexual orientations such as pansexual, polysexual, and fluid, and increasingly more research is being conducted on these populations within the field of Community Psychology (Kosciw et al., 2015). As a historically marginalized and oppressed group with inadequate representation in the literature, sexual minority groups face a variety of problems and issues that necessitate further research. The empowering and participatory approaches and methods used in Community Psychology can be beneficial for research with sexual minority groups.

2.4.4.10 Ability/Disability

Disabilities refer to visible or hidden and temporary or permanent conditions that provide barriers or challenges, and impact individuals of every age and social group. Traditional views of disability follow a medical model, primarily explaining diagnoses and treatment models from a pathological perspective (Goodley & Lawthom, 2010). In this traditional approach, individuals diagnosed with a disability are often discussed as objects of study instead of complex individuals impacted by their environment. A social model of ability, which is the perspective of these authors, views diagnoses from a social and environmental perspective and considers multiple ecological levels. The experiences of individuals are strongly valued, and community-based participatory research is a valuable way to explore experiences while empowering members of a community with varying levels of ability/disability. Learn more by watching the Employment Choice for People with Severe Physical Disabilities video.

Figure 2.11. Culture may impact the diagnosis of a disability.

Culture must be considered when viewing ability from a social perspective (Goodley & Lawthom, 2010), and may impact whether or not certain behaviors are considered sufficient for inclusion in a diagnosis (Figure 2.11). For example, cultural differences in the assessment of “typical” development have impacted the diagnosis of Autism Spectrum Disorders in different countries. Further, diagnoses or symptoms can be culturally-specific, and culture may influence how symptoms are communicated. The experience of culture can significantly impact lived experience for individuals diagnosed with a disability.

It is important to consider how intersectionality impacts the experience of disability. For example, students of color and other underserved groups have a higher rate of diagnosis of learning disabilities, emotional and behavioral disabilities, and intellectual disabilities (Artiles et ak,m 2010), which may be due to economic, historical, and social factors. Diagnosis must be considered as disabled youth are at a disadvantage, leading to more substantial disparities later in life.

2.4.6 References

Tervalon, M., & Murray-Garcia, J. (1998). Cultural humility versus cultural competence: A critical distinction in defining physician training outcomes in multicultural education. Journal of Health Care for the Poor and Underserved, 9(2), 117-125.

Cohen, A. B. (2009). Many forms of culture. American Psychologist, 64(3), 194-204.

Trickett, E. J. (2011). From “Water boiling in a Peruvian town” to “Letting them die”: Culture, community intervention, and the metabolic balance between patience and zeal. American Journal of Community Psychology, 47, 58-68.

Betancourt, H., & Lopez, S. R. (1993). The study of culture, ethnicity, and race in American psychology. American Psychologist, 48(6), 629-637.

Betancourt, H., & Lopez, S. R. (1993). The study of culture, ethnicity, and race in American psychology. American Psychologist, 48(6), 629-637.

Pinderhughes, E. (1989). Understanding race, ethnicity and power: The key to efficacy in clinical practice. Basic Books.

Resnicow, K., Braithwaite, R., Ahluwalia, J., & Baranowski, T. (1999). Cultural sensitivity in public health: Defined and demystified. Ethnicity & Disease, 9, 10-21.

Bond, M. A. (1999). Gender, race, and class in organizational contexts. American Journal of Community Psychology, 27(3), 327-355.

Kosciw, J. G., Palmer, N. A., & Kull, R. M. (2015). Reflecting resiliency: Openness about sexual orientation and/or gender identity and its relationship to well-being and educational outcomes for LGBT students. American Journal of Community Psychology, 55, 167-178.

Cheng, S. T., & Heller, K. (2009). Global aging: Challenges for community psychology. American Journal of Community Psychology, 44, 161-173.

Cheng, S. T., & Heller, K. (2009). Global aging: Challenges for community psychology. American Journal of Community Psychology, 44, 161-173.

Cohen, A. B. (2009). Many forms of culture. American Psychologist, 64(3), 194-204.

Flanders, C. E., Robinson, M., Legge, M. M., & Tarasoff, L. A. (2016). Negative identity experiences of bisexual and other non-monosexual people: A qualitative report. Journal of Gay & Lesbian Mental Health, 20(2), 152-172.

Kosciw, J. G., Palmer, N. A., & Kull, R. M. (2015). Reflecting resiliency: Openness about sexual orientation and/or gender identity and its relationship to well-being and educational outcomes for LGBT students. American Journal of Community Psychology, 55, 167-178.

Goodley, D., & Lawthom, R. (2010). Epistemological journeys in participatory action research: Alliances between community psychology and disability studies. Disability & Society, 20(2), 135-151. https://doi.org/10.1080/09687590500059077

Goodley, D., & Lawthom, R. (2010). Epistemological journeys in participatory action research: Alliances between community psychology and disability studies. Disability & Society, 20(2), 135-151. https://doi.org/10.1080/09687590500059077

Artiles, A. J., Kozleski, E. B., Trent, S. C., Osher, D., & Ortiz, A. (2010). Justifying and explaining disproportionality, 1968-2008: A critique of underlying views of culture. Exceptional Children, 76(3), 279-299. https://doi.org/10.1177/001440291007600303