In this chapter we have looked at how routines and rituals contribute to a sense of identity, whether individual, family, or cultural identity. We have also discussed ways in which families adapt to cultural transitions. In this section, we will examine an adaptive strategy that may be especially beneficial for youth who experience changes in their cultural settings.

Biculturalism, sometimes also referred to as multiculturalism, can be conceptualized as someone who has been exposed to and internalized elements from two or more cultures (Nguyen & Benet- Martínez, 2007). This can include people who are immigrants or descendents of immigrants, being a member of a minoritized community, having parents from two different cultures, having mixed ethnic or racial backgrounds, having lived in more than one country, growing up with one culture in addition to the dominant mainstream culture, and those in multicultural relationships. Bicultural identity refers to an individual who has been socialized in more than one culture, and who expresses a sense of belongingness with these cultures (Cheng et al., 2021). Having a bicultural identity does not require, however, that a person has even degrees of identification with all internalized cultures, such that a person could experience significantly more identification with one culture, and this identification can fluctuate.

Adolescents and young adults who combine aspects of both their family of origin culture and the new culture and speak both languages tend to adjust better than those who either stay steeped in their root culture only or assimilate completely to their new culture (Kasinitz et al., 2008; Portes & Rumbaut, 2001). Biculturalism can promote feelings of pride, uniqueness, and a heightened awareness of community and history. Children in families who promote learning in two languages benefit in academic achievements, cognitive gains, self-esteem, and family cohesion (Espinosa, 2008; Han, 2012). Although it can be a stressful obligation, children of immigrants often express pride in their bi-lingual abilities and in being able to translate for their parents (Kasinitz et al., 2008). In addition, speaking one’s native language allows children in immigrant and refugee families to connect with extended family members and ties them to their ethnic heritage (Costigan & Koryzma, 2011; Nesteruk & Marks, 2009). Biculturalism has the strongest association with socio-cultural and psychological adaptation (Nguyen & Benet-Martınez, 2013).

Biculturalism can be seen as the availability of double resources and competencies that come from one’s own ethnic/cultural group, and also those from the new and larger society. These resources and competencies can double a person’s capacity to cope with cultural transitions (Sam & Berry, 2010). Having social support networks in more than one culture can buffer the psych-socio-cultural challenges that might result from acculturation experiences, such as anxiety, loneliness, intercultural miscommunication, and inter-personal conflict (Repke & Benet-Martinez, 2018). Those with bicultural identities can show higher levels of integrative complexity, professional success, and creativity, as well as have lower levels of stereotype use, discriminatory choices, and symbolic racism (Leung et al., 2008; Maddux & Galinsky, 2009; Maddux et al., 2013; Tadmor, Galinsky, Maddux, 2012; Tadmor, Hong, et al., 2012). Given the positive outcomes associated with biculturalism, it is our hope that people can be encouraged to be involved with the cultures they have internalized, and that individuals’ and family’s cultural identities can be celebrated.

5.7.3 References

Cheng, Benet-Martínez, V., & Lee, F. (2021). Bicultural Identity Integration. In Handbook of Advances in Culture and Psychology, Volume 8. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190079741.003.0006

Costigan, & Koryzma, C. M. (2011). Acculturation and Adjustment Among Immigrant Chinese Parents: Mediating Role of Parenting Efficacy. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 58(2), 183–196. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0021696

Espinosa, L. M. (2008). Challenging common myths about young English language learners. FCD Policy Brief, Advancing PK-3, (8).

Han, W. J. (2012). Bilingualism and academic achievement: Does generation status make a difference? In C.G.Coll & A.K. Marks (Eds.), The immigrant paradox in children and adolescents: Is becoming American a developmental risk? (pp. 161-184). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Kasinitz, P., Mollenkopf, J. H., M., C.Waters, & J. Holdaway. (2008). Inheriting the city: The children of immigrants come of age. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.

Leung, A. K., Maddux, W. W., Galinsky, A. D., & Chiu, C. Y. (2008). Multicultural experience enhances creativity: The when and how. American Psychologist, 63, 169– 181.

Maddux, W. W., & Galinsky, A. D. (2009). Cultural borders and mental barriers: The relationship between living abroad and creativity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 96, 1047– 1061.

Maddux, W. W., Bivolaru, E., Hafenbrack, A. C., Tadmor, C. T., & Galinsky, A. D. (2013). Expanding opportunities by opening your mind multicultural engagement predicts job market success through longitudinal increases in integrative complexity. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 5, 608– 615.

Nesteruk, O., & Marks, L. (2009). Grandparents across the ocean: Eastern European immigrants’ struggle to maintain intergenerational relationships. Journal of Comparative Family Studies, 77-95.

Nguyen, A. M. D., & Benet-Martínez, V. (2013). Biculturalism and adjustment: A meta-analysis. Journal of cross-cultural psychology, 44(1), 122-159.

Portes, A., & Rumbaut, R. G. (2001). Legacies: The story of the immigrant second generation. Berkeley: University of California Press.

Repke, L., & Benet- Martínez, V. (2018). The (diverse) company you keep: Content and structure of immigrants’ social networks as a window into intercultural relations in Catalonia. Journal of Cross- Cultural Psychology, 49(6), 924– 944.Ringberg, T. V., Luna, D., Reihlen, M., & Peracchio, L. A. (2010). Bicultural- bilinguals: The effect of cultural frame switching on translation equivalence. International Journal of Cross Cultural Management, 10, 77– 92.

Sam, D. L., & Berry, J. W. (2010). Acculturation: When individuals and groups of different cultural backgrounds meet. Perspectives on psychological science, 5(4), 472-481.

Tadmor, C. T., Galinsky, A. D., & Maddux, W. W. (2012). Getting the most out of living abroad: Biculturalism and integrative complexity as key drivers of creative and professional success. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 103, 520.

Tadmor, C. T., Hong, Y. Y., Chao, M. M., Wiruchnipawan, F., & Wang, W. (2012). Multicultural experiences reduce intergroup bias through epistemic unfreezing. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 103, 750.