Freedom from violence and abuse is an essential aspect of families’ ability to create safety. Violence and abuse are common issues for families. They are significant barriers that keep families from creating a true sense of safety. Similarly, many types of families experience violence and abuse—both those who have resources and are served well by social institutions and those who are not. Even if a family has many of their macro-level needs met, families are prevented from creating positive and compensatory experiences for children if there is violence and abuse. Violence and abuse also can prevent the development of quality relationships within and outside of the family.

This section looks at common violence and abuse: intimate partner violence, sexual violence, child abuse, elder abuse, and intergenerational trauma. First, we’ll define these terms and discuss how common these types of violence and abuse are. Next, we’ll outline the problems that must be addressed if we want all families and individuals to experience safety and stability. One of the major takeaways from this discussion is that institutions are critical to addressing the impact of violence and abuse on families, as their role is to promote safety. If institutions can effectively promote safety, families and individuals will be better positioned.

It is important to note that these are serious and difficult topics to discuss, mainly because these social problems impact many people. Still, by better understanding the dynamics of violence and abuse, we can find ways to make our society safer for all individuals.

9.4.1 Intimate Partner Violence

The United States recognizes intimate partner violence as a significant public health issue. This type of violence is universally condemned due to its heinous nature. Intimate partner violence (IPV) is defined as any incident or pattern of behaviors (physical, psychological, sexual, or verbal) used by one partner to maintain power and control over the relationship.

Historically, in the United States, IPV has been considered an act of violence committed by men toward women. While heterosexual women commonly experience IPV, it can occur to people of any gender and sexuality. Young women are particularly at risk as IPV declines with age. Perpetrators of IPV are most often heterosexual men. Engaging in IPV has been linked with being unemployed, low income, involved with aggressive peers, and having conduct problems or anti-social behavior (Capaldi et al., 2012).

Figure 9.4 Intimate partner violence is extremely common, especially for women.

There are three kinds of IPV:

1. Physical violence consists of touching or painful physical contact, including intimidation of the victim through pushing, slapping, hair pulling, arm twisting, disfiguration, bruising, burning, beating, punching, and use of weapons.
2. Sexual violence consists of making degrading comments, touching in unpleasant means of harm, addressing a partner in a degrading way during sexual intercourse, and marital rape.
3. Psychological and emotional violence consists of threatening, intimidating, killing of pets, deprivation of fundamental needs (food, clothing, shelter, sleep), and distorting reality through control and manipulation.

Many abusers may use a combination of these tactics to establish power and control over the person they are abusing, frequently using physical and sexual violence to reinforce the subtle methods of physical and emotional abuse.

Community organizations have worked to provide services to help people experiencing intimate partner violence. These organizations offer a wide range of services to individuals and families experiencing this kind of violence: safety planning, counseling, legal assistance, shelter, and other social services. These organizations provide services that are integral to helping individuals safely leave abusive relationships. These resources are essential because the threat of violence is highest when a victim of intimate partner violence leaves their abuser.

9.4.2 Sexual Violence

Sexual violence includes harassment, assault, and rape. It is a common misperception that women are at greater risk of sexual violence from strangers. In reality, women are most likely to experience sexual violence from men they are intimate with or know. More than one in three women and one in four men have experienced sexual violence involving physical contact during their lifetimes. Nearly one in five women and one in 38 men have reported experiencing completed or attempted rape, and one in 14 men was made to penetrate someone (completed or attempted) during their lifetime. Men are overwhelmingly the perpetrators of sexual violence. Still, similar to intimate partner violence, sexual violence can affect individuals of any gender or sexuality. Men are significantly less likely to report sexual assault, so these numbers may be higher.

College students are particularly vulnerable to sexual violence compared to non-students. Male college-aged students (18–24) are 78 percent more likely than non-students of the same age to be victims of rape or sexual assault (Fast Facts: Preventing Sexual Violence, 2022). Female college-aged students (18–24) are 20 percent less likely than non-students of the same age to be victims of rape or sexual assault (Fast Facts: Preventing Sexual Violence, 2022).

There are several reasons that sexual violence is rampant, especially on residential four-year campuses. On many campuses, students lack knowledge of reporting sexual violence when it occurs. When it does get reported, colleges and universities rarely punish perpetrators of sexual violence and remove them from campus. College students engage in unsupervised heavy alcohol consumption, especially in greek life and high-powered athletic programs. This party culture creates an environment where predators have more opportunities to assault people sexually. Finally, there is a lack of education about consent.

One of the significant issues in the United States is that our society has failed to adequately address sexual violence and support victims. In fact, out of every 1000 instances of rape, only 13 cases get referred to a prosecutor, and only seven cases will lead to a felony conviction (Rape Abuse and Incest National Network [RAINN], n.d.). Instead of a culture where institutions hold perpetrators of sexual violence accountable, American society is one where rape culture is common. Rape culture refers to a society or environment where there is a culture of disbelief and lack of support for sexual violence survivors through normalizing and trivializing sexual violence despite its prevalent occurrence.

There are many examples of rape culture in institutions. Rape culture is when administrators ask, ‘what were you wearing?’ or ‘how much did you have to drink?’ as a student is trying to report a rape that occurred at a fraternity party to a campus administrator.

Rape culture is also present in the criminal justice system. The 2015 case against rapist Brock Turner highlighted how rape culture can manifest. Turner brutally raped an unconscious college student behind a dumpster and was caught in the act by two men. During the trial, Turner’s father declared that he should not have his life ruined over “20 minutes of action.” Ultimately, the California judge gave Turneronly three years of probation (Stack 2016). This example captures how rape culture exists in individual attitudes and how institutions function. Despite the egregious and substantiated nature, Turner faced few consequences for his actions, and the court system did not treat this as a serious offense. More broadly, this case reflects the dismal statistics on prosecution and convictions of rape in the U.S.

Finally, rape culture can be found in popculture, such as lyrics in popular music. A particularly blatant example of this is found in Rick Ross’s 2013 song “U.O.E.N.O”. In this song, he raps, “Put molly all in her champagne, she ain’t even know it/I took her home and I enjoyed that, she ain’t even know it.” These lyrics trivialize sexual assault and glorify rape. These examples show how rape culture is deeply embedded in societal institutions and must be challenged if we want all individuals and families to feel safe.

9.4.3 Child Abuse

Child abuse is the intentional emotional, negligent, physical, or sexual mistreatment of a child by an adult (Bell, 2013). Child abuse is common. At least one in seven children have experienced child abuse and/or neglect in the past year (Fast Facts: Preventing Child Abuse & Neglect, 2022). One of the many reasons these statistics are so concerning is that child abuse is trauma. According to SAMHSA (2014), trauma results from an event, series of events, or set of circumstances that is experienced by an individual as physically or emotionally harmful or life threatening and that has lasting adverse effects on the individual’s functioning and mental, physical, social, emotional, or spiritual well-being.

Abuse comes in many forms, including physical, emotional/verbal, and sexual abuse. According to the National Child Traumatic Stress Network (NCTSN, 2021), physical abuse is defined as any act, completed or attempted, that physically hurts or injures a child. NCTSN also describes that acts of physical abuse include hitting, kicking, scratching, pulling hair, and more. Child Protection Services typically get reports of bruises and other noticeable marks when investigating a report of physical abuse.

Emotional abuse is nonphysical maltreatment of a child through verbal language. The National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children (NSPCC) states that emotional abuse includes humiliation, threatening, ignoring, manipulating, and more. (https://www.nspcc.org.uk/preventing-abuse/child-abuse-and-neglect/emotional-abuse/what-is-emotional-abuse/) Abusers can combine emotional abuse with other forms, like physical and sexual abuse. Most reports of emotional abuse are harder to prove; thus, physical or sexual abuse tends to be the main cause of removal from a home.

Sexual abuse is maltreatment, violation, and exploitation where a perpetrator forces, coerces, or threatens a child into sexual contact for sexual gratification and/or financial benefit. Sexual abuse includes molestation, statutory rape, prostitution, pornography, exposure, incest, or other sexually exploitative activities. (American Society for the Positive Care of Children, 2017). Sexual abuse is also a common adverse childhood experience. About one in four girls and one in 13 boys experience child sexual abuse at some point in childhood (Fast Facts: Preventing Child Sexual Abuse, 2022). Like other forms of child abuse, sexual abuse is overwhelmingly perpetrated by someone close to the child. Data show that 91 percent of child sexual abuse is perpetrated by someone the child or their family knows (Fast Facts: Preventing Child Sexual Abuse, 2022).

Abuse does not always have to be physical, sexual, or verbal assault. It can also be neglect. According to the NSPCC, neglect is the failure to meet a child’s basic needs.

9.4.4 Elder Abuse

Elder Abuse is when older people are deprived of care or intentionally harmed by their caretakers. Abuse, including neglect and exploitation, is experienced by about 1 in 10 people aged 60 and older who live at home. Elder abuse and neglect are under-reported in the United States for many reasons, including fear and embarrassment by the elderly (O’Connor & Rowe, 2005). Elder victims of abuse risks include: functional disability, lack of social supports, poor physical health, cognitive impairment, mental health issues, lower socio-economic status, gender, age, and financial dependence (Pillemar, Burnes, Riffin, & Lachs, 2016). There is not one specific cause for elderly abuse and neglect. These reasons include various dynamics, cultural norms, negligence, and lack of education and support (Muehlbauer & Crane, 2006). Potential causes of abuse could be due to mental illness, substance abuse, and the need to abuse the perpetrator (Pillemar, Burnes, Riffin, & Lachs, 2016).

Forms of elder abuse can take the following shapes:

• Physical abuse—Use of physical force that may result in bodily injury, physical pain, or impairment
• Sexual abuse—Non-consensual sexual contact of any kind with an elderly person
• Emotional abuse—Infliction of anguish, pain, or distress through verbal or non-verbal acts
• Financial/material exploitation—Illegal or improper use of an elder’s funds, property, or assets
• Neglect—Refusal, or failure, to fulfill any part of a person’s obligations or duties to an elderly person
• Abandonment—Desertion of an elderly person by an individual who has physical custody of the elder or by a person who has assumed responsibility for providing care to the elder
• Self-neglect—Behaviors of an elderly person that threaten the elder’s health or safety (National Center on Elder Abuse, 2005)

There are several strategies that can help prevent elder abuse. These strategies include learning about and educating others on the signs of elder abuse, providing help for overburdened caregivers, listening to older adults and their caregivers about their struggles, and reporting abuse or suspected abuse to adult protective services.

9.4.5 Intergenerational Trauma

The American Psychological Association defines intergenerational trauma as “a phenomenon in which the descendants of a person who has experienced a terrifying event show adverse emotional and behavioral reactions to the event that are similar to those of the person himself or herself” (APA 2022). They note that these reactions can vary but often include:

• Shame.
• Increased anxiety and guilt.
• A heightened sense of vulnerability and helplessness.
• Low self-esteem.
• Depression and suicidality.
• Substance abuse.
• Dissociation.
• Hypervigilance.
• Intrusive thoughts.
• Difficulty with relationships and attachment to others.
• Difficulty in regulating aggression.
• Extreme reactivity to stress (APA, 2022)

Many groups have experienced intergenerational trauma, including descendants of Holocaust survivors, Rwandan genocide survivors, Native American boarding school survivors, and enslaved persons. Scientists think that trauma responses are passed down by parents and grandparents who model and teach relationship skills, behaviors, values, and beliefs. There is also some evidence that the transmission of these reactions may be biological (Yehuda et al., 2015).

Epigenetics is the study of how your behaviors and environment can cause changes that affect the way your genes work. Unlike genetic changes, epigenetic changes are reversible. They do not change your DNA sequence, but they can change how your body reads a DNA sequence (CDC, 2022). A 2016 study found evidence of epigenetic changes transmitted across generations to descendants of Holocaust survivors. This was the first human evidence that intergenerational trauma may also have a biological mechanism (Yehuda et al., 2015).

Regardless of the means of transmission—social, biological, or both—intergenerational trauma can threaten a family’s sense of safety and create problems within families. This kind of trauma may impact the bonds grandparents, parents, and children can form with one another, frequently making these relationships difficult and emotionally stunted. At the same time, more significant issues can emerge. These include suicidality, substance use disorders, and difficulty regulating aggression. These problems can lead to negative outcomes like adverse childhood experiences and family instability. The research on intergenerational trauma is still being done. We still have much to learn about how it functions. Consequently, strategies to address intergenerational trauma are also in the early stages of development. Even without specific evidence-based treatments, therapy can address intergenerational trauma.

9.4.7 References

American Psychological Society. (2022). Intergenerational Trauma Definition. APA Dictionary of Psychology. https://dictionary.apa.org/intergenerational-trauma

American Society for the Positive Care of Children (ASPCC). (2017). Child sexual abuse. Retrieved from http://americanspcc.org/child-sexual-abuse/

Bell, K. (2020, June 24). Child Abuse. Open Education Sociology Dictionary. https://sociologydictionary.org/child-abuse/

Capaldi, D. M., Knoble, N. B., Shortt, J. W., & Kim, H. K. (2012). A Systematic Review of Risk Factors for Intimate Partner Violence. Partner Abuse, 3(2), 231–280. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3384540/

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2022, August 15). What is Epigenetics? Genomics and Precision Health. https://www.cdc.gov/genomics/disease/epigenetics.htm

elder abuse. (2013). In K. Bell (Ed.), Open education sociology dictionary. Retrieved from https://sociologydictionary.org/elder-abuse/

Fast Facts: Preventing Child Sexual Abuse. (2022, April 6). Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. https://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/childsexualabuse/fastfact.html?CDC_AA_refVal=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cdc.gov%2Fviolenceprevention%2Fchildabuseandneglect%2Fchildsexualabuse.html

Fast Facts: Preventing Sexual Violence. (2022). Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. https://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/sexualviolence/fastfact.html

SAMHSA’s Concept of Trauma and Guidance for a Trauma-Informed Approach (No. 14–4884). (2014). Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. https://ncsacw.acf.hhs.gov/userfiles/files/SAMHSA_Trauma.pdf

McGarry, J., Ali, P., & Hinchliff, S. (2017). Older women, intimate partner violence and mental health: A consideration of the particular issues for health and healthcare practice. Journal of Clinical Nursing, 26(15-16), 2177-2191. doi:// 10.1111/jocn.13490

Muehlbauer, P., & Crane, P. (2006). Elder abuse and neglect. Journal of Psychosocial Nursing and Mental Health Services, 44(11), 43-48. Retrieved from PubMed database

National Center on Elder Abuse. (2005). Elder abuse prevalence and incidence. Washington, DC: National Center on Elder Abuse.

National Child Traumatic Stress Network (NCTSN). (n.d). Families and trauma. Retrieved from http://www.nctsn.org/resources/topics/families-and-trauma

National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children. (2017). Emotional abuse: What is emotional abuse? Retrieved from https://www.nspcc.org.uk/preventing-abuse/child-abuse-and-neglect/emotional-abuse/what-is-emotional-abuse/

O’Connor, K., & Rowe, J. (2005). Elder abuse. Reviews in Clinical Gerontology, 15(1), 47-54. doi:10.1017/S0959259805001668

Pillemar, K., Burnes, D., Riffin, C., & Lachs, M. (2016). Elder abuse: global situation, risk factors, and prevention strategies. The Gerontologist, 56(S2), S194-S205.

Stack, L. (2016, June 6). Light Sentence for Brock Turner in Stanford Rape Case Draws Outrage. New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2016/06/07/us/outrage-in-stanford-rape-case-over-dueling-statements-of-victim-and-attackers-father.html

Stark, E., & Filtcraft, A. (1998). Women at risk: Domestic violence and women’s health. Criminal Behavior and Mental Health, 8(3), 232-234.

What to Expect from the Criminal Justice System. (n.d.). RAINN. https://www.rainn.org/articles/what-expect-criminal-justice-system

Yehuda, R., Daskalakis, N.P., Bierer, L.M., Bader, H.N., Klengel, T., Holsboer, F., and Binder, E.B.. (2015). Holocaust Exposure Induced Intergenerational Effects on FKBP5 Methylation. Biological Psychiatry, 80(5), P372-380. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2015.08.005.